may be omitted, when carriages are not used on the same railway, with inside bearings, or where such carriages do not travel in the same trains with the passenger carriages. 88, 99, are the cross stays; the cross sheths are mortised into the longitudinal sheths, secured with bed-bolts, and likewise with cross bolts, as shewn in the drawing. The springs of this carriage, are placed above the frame work similar to the trucks, as shewn in Fig. 1; but they may be placed below, without altering the construction of the frame-work at all, it being merely necessary to raise the framing of the carriage a little higher. In the drawing, Fig. 1, the spring is shewn the same as for the truck carriages, but for passenger carriages of a better class, the springs are made much longer, and sometimes double or grasshopper springs. In this carriage no upper or raised platform is required, as on the truck carriages; that part of the wheels above the frame-work, runs underneath the seats, as shewn in the drawing. Fig. 1, is an open carriage, or what is called the second class of passenger carriages; tttttt, are the seats; w w w, the doors. A canopy is raised upon iron uprights, and covered, to shelter the passengers from the rain, and also from the small particles of coke, thrown out of the chimney of the engine; roy u, shews the brake for stopping the carriage, which, where it presses against the wheel, is hung upon the inside of the outer sheth at y; the lever, a v o, works upon the fulcrum at v. When, therefore, the end, ., is moved outwards, it presses the brake, y u, against the wheel, by the connecting rod, oi. This is what is called a single brake, but the lever being very powerful, it is generally found sufficient. This is one of the varieties of the open passenger carriages; there are, however, many different forms, according to the fancy of the engineer; the figure

shewn in the drawing is, however, a very comfortable and economical form of open carriage.

§ 10.-First Class, Passenger Carriages.

Figs. 3, 4, and 5, Plate VIII., shew a plan of close, or first class carriage, for the conveyance of passengers. The framing of this carriage is precisely the same as that for the open carriage, described in Fig. 2, the letters referring to the same parts. Fig. 4, is a cross section, shewing the construction of the interior of the carriage; tttt, being the seats; and в, the space below the seats; rr, the stands for the springs. In some of these carriages, the seats are divided into four compartments, as shewn in Fig. 4, with arms for the comfort of the passengers. The seats, and back, and the whole of the inside, are lined with cushions, and some of them are fitted up in the first-rate style of coach-building.

In the carriages shewn in the plates, the main framing is a solid piece of oak; in most of the carriages used on the Liverpool and Manchester, and also the Grand Junction or Birmingham railways, the side framing consists of two pieces of timber, kept apart two or three inches by studs, and secured by bolts. The latter mode of constructing the framing of the carriages, is for the purpose of applying a particular description of buffing apparatus, which will be hereafter described. In these carriages, the brake is worked different from the common passenger carriages, the guard sitting upon the top of the carriage. d' a", Figs. 2, 3, and 4, is an upright rod, worked by the handle, a'; this rod works a small pinion, b, and large wheel, b, on the axle of which is a small pinion, working into the toothed rack, c', fixed to the horizontal rod, c c". This rod lays hold of a lever, or arm, fixed upon the shaft, é é ́; and upon

this shaft is another lever, communicating with the two arms, ff, Fig. 3. When, therefore, the handle, a', is turned, the combination of wheels moves the rod, c' c", back and forwards, by means of the toothed rack; and if it is drawn in the direction of the dart, the lever on the shaft, e'e', presses the two arms, f'f', downwards, and, consequently, presses the brakes, u u, against the wheels; and the handle being turned so as to work the rod in the opposite direction, the brakes are drawn upwards, and, therefore, drawn from against the wheels. The combination of wheels is for the purpose of increasing the power of the handle, a', which could not otherwise be made of sufficient power, without being inconveniently long.

In Fig. 6, Plate VI., another plan of working the brake is shewn. In this plan there is a separate brake to each wheel, and not a double one, as in Fig. 3, Plate VIII. 1 Fig. 6, Plate VI., is the handle, and pinion, working into the large wheel, 2, on the axle of which is a small pinion, working the two-toothed racks, 3 and 4. Two axles, 5 and 6, are fixed to the frame of the carriage; on each of these axles an arm is firmly fixed, projecting downwards, and upon these arms the brakes, which act against the travelling wheels of the carriage, are fastened. Upon the same axles, at 5 and 6, other two levers, or arms, are fixed, both of them projecting upwards. When, therefore, the handle is turned towards the left, the rod 3, and arm 5, are pushed forwards, and, consequently, that brake is pressed against the wheel; while, at the same time, the rod 4, and arm 6, are pulled in the opposite direction, and that brake is pressed against the other wheel; and when the handle is turned in the other direction, the brakes are taken from against the wheels. There are several other modes practised, of applying brakes to the wheels

of the carriages, which it is unnecessary here to describe.

§ 11.-Mode of coupling Carriages, or Buffing

Apparatus.

In railway travelling, the engines are necessarily very powerful, and, consequently, several carriages are dragged at a time; and these were generally fastened to each other, either by a chain, or by a bar of iron. If by the former, the inertia of one waggon, by any change of motion, is independent of the other; and, therefore, when the engine puts the first carriage in motion, it is done by a jerk, or sudden pull, and so on throughout the whole train, as each carriage is successively put in motion; and, consequently, a succession of jerks is felt by the passengers, as each carriage is put in motion. Again, when the train is stopped, or the speed slackened, the inertia of each carriage causes it to strike against the preceding one, and a succession of blows, or shocks, is felt, as each carriage successively strikes against that which precedes it; and thus the passengers are continually subjected to a succession of jerks, or shocks, whenever any change of motion takes place. When the carrriages are fastened together, by an inflexible bar of iron, the succession of jerks, or shocks, is obviated, the carriages being prevented striking against each other, and only one jerk, or blow, is felt, when the entire train is either stopped, or put in motion; but, in this case, unless the engine be more than sufficiently powerful, to drag the train forward, when in motion, at a certain velocity, it will be incapable of putting the whole mass of carriages, from a state of rest, into motion, without very considerable delay. If the carriages are not fastened together by an in

flexible bar, but by a chain, this allows each carriage to move a short distance, before the next is put in motion; then each carriage is put into motion in succession, and the inertia is subdivided into as many efforts as there are carriages.

Whether, however, the changes of motion of the train of carriages, is effected as one mass, or in separate carriages; every change produces either a jerk, or a shock, or both, and these are greater, the more rapid the rate of travelling, and it required some contrivance to obviate this inconvenience. The most obvious was a spring, by which the blow, or jerk, was not instantaneously transmitted to the other carriages, but gradually, and through the elasticity of the springs. Upon the Liverpool and Manchester railway, which was the first where rapid travelling was begun, and where the necessity first existed, the carriages were fitted up with springs in the following manner.

Fig. 6, Plate VI., shews the plan used on that railway; an elliptic spring, d d, is placed horizontally in the middle of the frame of the carriage, the back of which rests against the stop at c, and the two ends rest against the stops at dd. The dragging chain, b, is fastened to the middle of the spring, by the rod, bb; and the dragging chain, f, is fastened to the ends, dd, of the spring, by the two diagonal rods, e' e'.

Buffer heads, or cushions, stuffed with hair, or some other elastic substance, 9 g, hh, are placed at the ends of the outer side frames of the carriage. The rods, upon which the buffer heads, g g, are fixed, passing through the ends of the side frame of the carriage, and these side frames being constructed of two pieces, kept apart by studs, the rods pass within the frame, through the rests, dd, and press against the ends of the elliptic