A story of peasant life.

Outline of the novel.

The search for a wife.

eighteenth century which we expect to see stirring around the Haunted Pool. And when the curtain rises and the author permits us to view the real pastoral we wonder why she found so lugubrious and misleading a prelude necessary to the play. For it is lugubrious in spite of the fine description of the newly-yoked oxen drawing the plow, a description which might well have served as a suggestion to the great artist among French women, Rosa Bonheur, for her masterpiece of the plow oxen of the Nivernais, which was painted about that time, in 1849.

The story of the "Haunted Pool" does not carry out any of the forebodings of its preface. It is a simple, direct tale of the uneducated farming class which forms so large a share of the population of France. It tells of the peasant proprietor, his honest industry and wholesome purpose, and adds a spice of shrewdness and mother-wit to keep the idyll from becoming insipid. Germain, a young widower with three children left to his care, is urged by his father-in-law to marry again. The little ones demand too much attention from their grandmother and aunt. They need constant supervision. The first wife would join her father in insisting on another union, could her voice come back from the spirit land. Yet that union should be based on reason with the requirements of the situation in mind. A young and frivolous person would soon weary of the burden bequeathed to her by her predecessor. Nor should she be too pretty nor too poor. In fact, a widow with a good property would suit the case to a nicety. To these suggestions of worldly wisdom and match-making the melancholy Germain offers but slight resistance. He will follow the desire of his wife's family, and prepares at once for the courtship for which the fathers on either side have already smoothed the

way.

But a marriage which looks wholly at financial advantage, satisfactory as it is to the old peasant who is only indirectly concerned, does not appeal to the younger one who suffers in the absence of the affection he had once enjoyed. And when he starts on his errand in company with a young girl of the neighborhood, the Guillette's Marie, he allows his overburdened heart to respond to her sympathy. He cannot take his little boy with him, much as they both desire, because to remind the widow Guérin of family care at the outset might prejudice her against the alliance. And Marie, who loves little Pierre, begins to praise him, and Germain already is beginning to trust in her and ask her opinion. As they are discussing the widow and her attitude toward the children, the gray mare which was carrying them both jumps aside and then returns to the road, looking at the bushes. Germain follows the horse's glance, and behold, little Pierre is in the ditch fast asleep. When he awakes he renews his plea to go with his father, and seconded by Marie who promises to take care of him and amuse him during Germain's visit, wins his case. But time has been lost, and Pierre's hunger and lunch delay still more, so that Germain, warned by sunset, attempts a short cut through the woods which lie between him and his destination. He misses his way and after vain efforts to find it again, dismounts to reconnoiter. The gray mare then breaks her fastenings and runs away, and the travelers, forced to inactivity, light a fire and prepare to spend the night on the spot. Marie shows her good sense and her accomplishments, watches over little Pierre, cooks the food, furnishes the wine, and demeans herself as the most prudent housekeeper. What more was necessary to suggest to Germain the idea that Marie would be the helpmate he was seeking? Little Pierre's awakening, and the expression of his desire that if he were to have another mother, it might be little Marie. The young girl, however, would not understand the meaning of Germain's words, and soon falling asleep left him to his own reflections.

Toward midnight, when the mist cleared, they started again on their way. But still unable to make progress, and ever returning on their

steps, they concluded to pass the remainder of the night by the fire. Germain, yielding entirely to his admiration for the young girl and the enchantment of the hour, assures her that she is the one he wishes to marry. She replies, objecting to his age, and dawn finds them silent and constrained. They now can resume their journey, they leave the woods and separate, little Pierre clinging resolutely to Marie.

Germain was indisposed enough by the events of the night to press At the widow's his suit with the widow Guérin. Her appearance, when he had once home. reached her farm, only increased his aversion to the match. Instead of finding a prudent, home-like person of mild manners, he beheld a village coquette, surrounded by admirers, whom she set one against the other. Germain had no heart to enter the lists. He walked to church with the widow's father, excused himself from dancing after mass, and though encouraged by the older man, persisted that he had come to buy oxen and not to pay court. But the way toward the pasture led also toward the farm where Marie was to work. He went there. She and little Pierre had already gone. Germain traced them back to the widow's, and finally learned they had entered the woods. Saddling his mare, which he had recovered, he galloped after them and soon found the camp-fire of the night before. An old woman told him the water nearby was the Devil's Pool (the "Haunted Pool"), and a child had been drowned in it; and once there you could never find the way out of the woods but always returned to the same place. These words only increased Germain's anxiety. He searched the woods until he found the fugitives, closely followed by their persecutor. He chastised the latter and took Pierre and Marie home again. His explanation of the failure of his mission was regretfully received by old Maurice. But in it he made no mention of Marie, nor did he speak to her again for the entire winter. Mother Maurice noticed his sadness and reticence, and, suspecting some love affair, catechized him. He confessed to her, won her assent and the promise to bring her husband over to her way of thinking. This last task was an easy one, for Marie, though poor, was a hard worker and much esteemed. And finally Germain is able to express his love and hear from Marie that he is loved in return.

The story ends here. This recital of a peasant courtship, carried on A faithful picture. near to nature and based on mutual assistance and respect, is not wholly imaginative nor wholly true. The traits of the French agriculturist have been well observed and well rendered. What matter if he expresses himself a little rhetorically at times, and if the fine glimpses of nature the book affords us are caught by the reader and not by him? It is a faithful picture, on the whole, of his views and activity, and we accept the touches of color given it by the painter to heighten the effect. Even the appendix on the marriage ceremony and festivities increases our pleasure. For folk-songs, provincial customs, and popular traditions, so dear to George Sand herself, are here set forth in her most fascinating style.

"George Sand," by E. Caro. Translated by Melville B. Anderson. (A. C. McClurg & Bibliography. Co., Chicago, 1888.) Essay on George Sand in "Mixed Essays," by Matthew Arnold. (Macmillan & Co., New York, 1879.) Article by Thomas Sergeant Perry in the Atlantic Monthly, Vol. XXXVIII., p. 444.

Littell's Living Age, Vol. LXXVII., p. 131. See also

the article in the "Encyclopædia Britannica."

1. What marked contrasts may be noted between the work of George Sand and that of Review Questions. George Eliot? 2. What were the chief events of George Sand's childhood and early life? 3. Under what circumstances was her first independent novel produced? 4. What were the ruling ideas expressed in her earlier books? 5. How was her work influenced by her surroundings? 6. In what stories was her love of country life expressed? 7. In what does the charm of her writing consist? 8. How is her interest in folk-lore shown in "Little Fadette"? 9. Tell the story of " The Haunted Pool."

A follower of
Plato.

His home life.

Letter to his wife.

P

THE INNER LIFE OF PLUTARCH.*

BY HAROLD N. FOWLER. XX

(Professor of Greek, College for Women of Western Reserve University, Cleveland.) LUTARCH was born in the little town of Chæronea, in Boeotia, probably somewhat before 50 A. D., though the exact date cannot be ascertained. His father, whose name is not recorded, was a man of wealth and culture, belonging to a much respected family. The young Plutarch therefore had the advantage of a good education at home, and when he reached the proper age was sent to Athens, where he studied under Ammonius, a teacher belonging to the Platonic school. How long he was at Athens we do not know, but the teachings of Ammonius seem to have had a lasting influence upon him, for he remained throughout his life a Platonist, rejecting the materialism of the Stoics as well as the peculiarly Epicurean doctrines, such, for instance, as that the gods have nothing to do with human affairs. Like the other Platonists or, as they were called, Academicians, of his time, he was an eclectic, taking from the teachings of every school of philosophy what seemed to him most reasonable; but at the same time he regarded himself as a follower of Plato, and liked to support his views by arguments drawn from Plato's works. These works he studied with great diligence, as is shown by the fact that he wrote treatises on several points of Plato's doctrine.

On his return from Athens, Plutarch soon became a prominent man at Chæronea, for he was still young when he was sent as a delegate to address the proconsul. He traveled in various regions at different times, going once to Alexandria in Egypt, twice at least, though probably not until comparatively late in life, to Rome, and perhaps also to Sardis in Asia Minor. He married Timoxena, the daughter of a man of some local importance, and had four sons and a daughter. Two sons, apparently the eldest and the youngest, died while mere boys, and the daughter died at two years of age. At the time of her death Plutarch was away from home, and first heard of the sad event when he reached the house of his niece at Tanagra. Thereupon he wrote his wife a letter, trying to console her for their loss. It is a kind and affectionate letter, calling to mind the lovable qualities of the dead child, and urging his wife to preserve the dignity and moderation in her grief which had been characteristic of her in other circumstances, reminding her that if the child had never been born she would not grieve, and that now she, as well as himself, had as much to be thankful for as if they had never had a daughter, and had the blessing of sweet memories besides. In addition to such consolations he says:

"As for what you hear others say, who persuade the vulgar that the soul, when once freed from the body, suffers no inconvenience nor evil nor is sensible at all, I know that you are better grounded in the doctrines delivered down to us from our ancestors, as also in the sacred mysteries of Bacchus, than to believe such stories; for the religious symbols are well known to us who are of the fraternity. Therefore be assured that the soul, being incapable of death, is affected in the same manner as birds that are kept in a cage. For if she has

*This is the ninth CHAUTAUQUAN study of the Inner Life of Historic Figures in France and Greece. Fénelon, by Charles M. Stuart, appeared in October; Pascal, by Napthali Luccock, appeared in November; Madame Guyon, by Jesse L. Hurlbut, appeared in December; Corot, by Adelia A. Field Johnston, appeared in January; The Chevalier Bayard, by Vincent Van Marter Beede, appeared in February; Odysseus, by Harold N. Fowler, appeared in March; Eschylus, by Harold N. Fowler, appeared in April; Socrates, by Harold N. Fowler, appeared in May.

been a long time educated and cherished in the body, and by long custom has been made familiar with most things of this life, she will (though separable) return again, and at length enter the body; nor ceaseth it by new births now and then to be entangled in the chances and events of this life. For do not think that old age is therefore evil spoken of and blamed, because it is accompanied with wrinkles, gray hairs, and weakness of body. But this is the most troublesome thing in old age, that it maketh the soul weak in its remembrance of divine things, and too earnest for things relating to the body; thus it bendeth and boweth, retaining that form which it took of the body. But that which is taken away in youth, being more soft and tractable, soon returns to its native vigor and beauty."

The most striking thing in this passage is the part about the future Idea of future life. life. Plutarch evidently believed that the soul does not die, but that it is set free from the body. If, however, during its earthly life, the soul has become too much interested in the things of this world, it will not be able to remain free, but will again enter into a body, as a bird, though set free, returns to its cage. This idea is in part derived from Plato, but some of the details may belong to the mysteries of Dionysus, into which Plutarch and his wife had both been initiated. Plutarch was probably initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries also, and in many ways he showed his respect for the ancient religion and its forms of worship. In the passage quoted above, he mentions "the doctrines delivered down to us from our ancestors," and this is by no means the only place where he speaks of traditional religious teachings with respect. In fact, he accepts the traditional belief in the gods chiefly because it is handed down from previous generations.

Plutarch was in all respects a pious and religious man. He was a priest and agonothetes, or manager of the sacred games, at Delphi, and was also connected with the Delphic oracle, though what the manner of this connection was we cannot tell. He was a firm believer in oracles and other kinds of divination, and wrote a treatise on the question "Why the Oracles Cease to Give Answers," and another on the question" Wherefore the Pythian Priestess now Ceases to Deliver her Oracles in Verse," both of which are interesting because they throw light upon the condition of the ancient oracles in the first century after Christ, as well as on account of the interest which is attached to Plutarch's opinions.

The belief in divination is a direct outcome of Plutarch's ideas about Conception of the the gods. He adopted from Plato the conception of deity as the gods. embodiment of all ethical and intellectual perfection. This God is free from all necessities, and therefore that human virtue is most godlike and best which has the fewest needs and is content with the least in this world. The happiness of God lies in His wisdom and thought. He possesses will and consciousness, and His consciousness is perfect wisdom, while His will is perfect righteousness and virtue. He is the creator of the world and of the other gods, these being the gods ordinarily worshiped. Like their creator, these gods are free from all evil. Lower in rank than the gods are the spirits, daimones, of several grades. Some of these seem to have been created as spirits from the beginning, while others have been raised from the lower plane of humanity. These spirits act as intermediaries between the gods and men, and they have to do with oracles and other forms of prophecy and divination. Some of these spirits are less perfect than others, and the stories of improper conduct on the part of the gods are really due to confusion in the minds of men, who have connected with the names of gods acts really performed by some of the less perfect spirits.

It is through the spirits that the divine providence or care for mortals Immortality of the is exercised, for Plutarch believed that the gods are our best friends and soul. always desire to do us good. And this belief is again a support to the belief in the immortality of the soul, for why should the gods care for us if there were nothing lasting in us? But the incorporeal part of man is not so simple as is generally supposed. "The common opinion, which

Religious belief founded on philosophy.

Not a great genius.

Miscellaneous essays and treatises.

most persons hold," says Plutarch in his treatise on "The Face Appearing in the Orb of the Moon," "is that man is a compound subject, and this they have reason to believe. But they are mistaken in thinking him to be compounded of two parts only. For they imagine that the understanding is a part of the soul, but they err in this no less than those who make the soul to be a part of the body; for the understanding as far exceeds the soul, as the soul is better and diviner than the body. Now this composition of the soul with the understanding makes reason; and with the body, passion."

It is evident that Plutarch's views about the soul are the result of philosophical speculation even more than of religious belief. But his religious belief was no less sincere because it was supported by his philosophy. No belief, in fact, could have been satisfactory to Plutarch which did not seem to him capable of philosophical demonstration. His main interest was in ethical matters, in right and wrong, in general rules for conduct, in special precepts for special circumstances or for individual characters, but in the discussion of all these he loved to take a philosophical attitude.

When Plutarch was in Rome he used to lecture on various ethical subjects, and some of his published treatises are without doubt little more than fair copies of his Roman lectures. But besides lecturing, he also gave private advice on matters of daily conduct. People came to consult him about their conscientious doubts much as one consults a physician about a physical malady; and for their questions Plutarch had his answers ready, properly adorned, if we may judge from his published writings, with apt quotations from the poets and philosophers of the great days of Greece.

Plutarch was not a great genius. He was a wealthy country gentleman, with a conscientious desire to do his duty in the world, a profound respect and hearty admiration for the great Greeks of earlier times, but with no desire, even as a passing dream, of freeing Greece from the allembracing rule of Rome. He felt that educated and wealthy men like himself ought not to withdraw from public life, and therefore he accepted offices in his native town, a town so small that he did not wish to move away from it" lest it become still smaller." Living in such a quiet place he had ample leisure, which he spent in writing. He is best known as the author of " Parallel Lives of Greeks and Romans," biographies in which he displays much diligence in reading the works of earlier writers, but little or no care for original investigation and little real historical insight. In these biographies he lets his own personality appear occasionally, but it is from his other works that most of our information is derived. These other works are miscellaneous essays and treatises, popularly known as "Plutarch's Morals," though not by any means all of them are directly concerned with morality. A selection from the titles of these essays will give some idea of the scope of his interests "A Discourse Concerning the Training of Children," "Concerning the Cure of Anger, "Of Bashfulness," "Of Superstition or Indiscreet Devotion," "Concerning the Virtues of Women," "How a Young Man Ought to Hear Poems," "That it is not Possible to Live Pleasurably According to the Doctrine of Epicurus," "Of Brotherly Love," "Symposiacs," or tabletalk on various subjects, "Concerning Such Whom God is Slow to Punish, ""Whether an Old Man Ought to Meddle in State Affairs." It is evident from these titles, and these are but a few chosen at random from a much greater number, that Plutarch was interested in many things, especially in ethical and antiquarian questions. And these essays contain much good sense and good feeling, qualities which have been appreciated by many readers, by none perhaps more than by Ralph Waldo Emerson, who delighted in Plutarch's Morals, and was not ashamed to acknowledge his indebtedness to them.