full parade each year. The arms of the State are-three some published collections. The Reports of the Board of vines in fruit-2 and 1, all proper-with the motto, "Qui transtulit sustinet."

History. The Dutch first explored the country in 1620, but made no settlement till 1633. Then they settled at Hartford, buying of the Pequot Indians, but selling soon after to the English. James I. granted the first English patent to all New England in 1620 to Lord Say-and-Seal and others. In 1634-36 permanent settlements were made at Hartford, Wethersfield, and Windsor by companies from Massachusetts under a patent from the Plymouth colony, covering the present State and also portions of Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Long Island, and an undefined territory to the west. In 1637 these towns organized an independent government, declared war against the Pequots, and, under Captain J. Mason, nearly destroyed the tribes. In 1638 New Haven and vicinity was settled by an English company under Rev. J. Davenport and Governor Eaton. This colony was united to Connecticut in 1662, as was Saybrook in 1644. In 1639 Connecticut, chiefly through the influence of the Rev. J. Hooker of Hartford, adopted a constitution. This was the first one written out, as a complete form of civil order, in the New World, and embodies all the essential features of the constitutions of the American States, and of the Republic itself, as they exist at the present day. It is the free representative plan which characterizes the country." In this constitution, and during the administration of it (till 1661), the only authority recognized was the "supreme power of the commonwealth," and the people were practically independent. When Charles II. came to the throne, J. Winthrop, jun., succeeded, in 1662, in obtaining a most liberal charter, which constituted Connecticut so completely a self-governed colony that no changes were needed in the instrument when she became one of the American States. Nor was it altered till 1818. From 1685 to 1687 James II. made strenuous efforts to take away all the New England charters; and in the latter year, Sir E. Andross, the royally appointed governor, came to Hartford while the Assembly was sitting, and demanded the charter. It was, however, concealed in the famous Charter Oak ; and, at the dethronement of James II. in 1689 (after a year and a half of oppressive rule by Andross), the colonial Government resumed its functions as if nothing had happened. From the union of the colonies, Hartford was the seat of Government till 1701, from which date it shared the honor with New Haven until 1874, when it became the scle capital. The code, commonly called the Blue Laws of Connecticut, is now generally considered to have been a forgery by the Rev. Samuel Peters. The early statutes were not peculiarly severe or intolerant, and no case of execution for witchcraft is known. During the French and Indian wars Connecticut supplied her full quota of soldiers; and, during the revolt of the colonies, she furnished more men in proportion to her population, and more aid in proportion to her wealth, than any other colony. A few days before the Declaration of Independence she instructed her delegates to propose such a measure. The efficient and wise governor at the time, whom Washington used to call Brother Jonathan (Trumbull), has bequeathed his nickname to the country. Connecticut ratified the U. S. Constitution, January 9, 1788, being the fifth colony to do so. She took an active part in the war of 1812, though it cost the ruin of her West India and coasting trade. The present constitution was adopted in 1818, doing away with slavery, and being otherwise remarkable for its liberality and wisdom. It has been considerably amended to meet the needs of increased and differently distributed population, and of industrial progress. Under Governor Buckingham the State took a very prominent part in the civil war of 1861-65. She furnished 54,882 men, mostly for three years; and the war expenses, not only of the State and towns, but of private individuals, were enormous. The administration of the government since has been unusually honest and cautious, owing to the even balance of the political parties who alternate in its conduct. There is no just and complete history of the State, but its records from 1636 are preserved, and furnish the best source of information. The general histories of Bancroft and Palgrave, and the special ones of Trumbull, Hollister, and Barber, present the history very fairly down to the present century. There is a bulky history of Connecticut during the War of 1861-65, by Crofut and Morris. In Hartford is an enterprising Historical Society with

Education are valuable in this connection. (W. G. A.) CONNEMARA, a wild and picturesque district in the west of Galway, Ireland, indented by numerous bays from the Atlantic, whence it derives its name. It corresponds in boundary with the barony of Ballinahinch, lying between the bays of Kilkieran and Ballinakill; but the name is often applied in a general way to the whole western division of county Galway.

CONNOR, BERNARD (1666-1698), physician, was born in Kerry, Ireland. He studied medicine at Montpellier, and afterwards at Paris. Having travelled through Italy with the two sons of the high chancellor of Poland, he was introduced at the court of Warsaw, and appointed physician to John Sobieski, king of Poland. In 1695 he visited England, and read a course of lectures on physiology in London and Oxford. He was afterwards elected member of the Royal Society and College of Physicians, and was invited to Cambridge, where he also delivered public lectures. He was the author of a treatise entitled Evangelium Medici (the Physician's Gospel), in which he endeavored to explain the Christian miracles as due to natural causes. He also wrote a History of Poland in 2 vols.

CONOLLY, JOHN (1794-1867), physician, studied medicine at Edinburgh, where he took the degree of M.D. in 1821. He settled in practice at Chichester, whence he removed to Stratford-on-Avon. In 1827 he was appointed, when only thirty-three years of age, professor of practice of physic in University College, London. This chair he resigned after holding it four years. Subsequently he practised medicine in Warwick until 1839, in which year he was elected resident physician to the Middlesex County Asylum at Hanwell. It was in this capacity that Conolly made his name famous, by carrying out in its entirety and on a large scale the principle of non-restraint in the treatment of the insane. This principle had been acted on in two small asylums-the Retreat near York, and the Lincoln Asylum; but it was due to the philanthropic energy of Conolly in sweeping away all mechanical restraint in the great metropolitan lunatic hospital, in the face of strong opposition, that the principle became diffused over the whole kingdom, and accepted as fundamental. Dr. Conolly was granted the degree of D.C.L. by the University of Oxford in 1851, in acknowledgment of these services. He died in 1867. See a memoir by Sir James Clark, Bart., published in 1869.

CONON, an Athenian general. Having already commanded on several occasions, he was chosen as one of the ten generals who superseded Alcibiades in 406 B. c. He was not present at the battle of Arginusæ, and consequently he was allowed to remain in command. In 405, however, the Athenian fleet was surprised by Lysander, at Egospotami, and Conon fled to his friend, Evagoras, king of Cyprus. On the outbreak of the war between Sparta and the Persians, he obtained from King Artaxerxes joint command with Pharnabazus of a Persian fleet. With it in 394 B. C. he defeated the Lacedæmonians near Cnidos, and thus deprived them of the empire of the sea, which they had held since the taking of Athens. Sailing down the Ægean to Athens, he expelled the Lacedæmonian har mosts from most of the maritime towns, and finally completed his services to his country by restoring the long walls and the fortifications of the Piræus. According to one account, he was put to death by Tiribazus, when on an embassy from Athens to the Persian court; but it seems more probable that he escaped to Cyprus, where he had considerable property, and that he died there a natural death. See GREECE.

CONRAD. For the four emperors of this name, see GERMANY.

CONRADIN (1252-1268), son of the Emperor Conrad IV. and Elizabeth of Bavaria, was at the death of his father an infant some two years old. His uncle, Manfred, the illegitimate son of Frederick II., declared himself his champion, but, having recovered the Two Sicilies, himself seized the throne. Urban IV. now called in the aid of Charles of Anjou, who defeated Manfred, and took possession of the crown. But Charles showed favor to none but his own countrymen, and at the entreaty of the Ghibelline leaders, by whom he was acknowledged as emperor, Conradin, now only sixteen, led an army into Italy. After gaining some advantages he was utterly defeated in Au

gust, 1268, and soon after, being betrayed into the hands of the Vatican and the Tuileries was again broken. Rome was Charles, he was unjustly tried, condemned, and executed in full of anti-Revolutionary and anti-Napoleonic strangers the market-place of Naples, with the consent of the Pope. from all parts of Europe. The emperor was irritated; and He left his kingdom by will to Peter of Aragon. See SICILY. his ambassador, Cardinal Fesch, kept up the irritation by CONRART, or Conrard, VALENTIN (1603-1675), one perpetual complaints directed more especially against Conof the founders of the French Academy, was .orn at Paris salvi himself. "Tell Consalvi," wrote the conqueror, still in 1603, and was educated, under Calvinist parents, for flushed with Austerlitz, "that if he loves his country he a commercial life. After his father's death, however, he must either resign or do what I demand." Consalvi did turned his attention to literature, made himself proficient accordingly resign on the 17th June, 1807, and was followed in his own language, and in those of Italy and Spain, and in rapid succession by Casoni, Doria, Gabrielli, and Pacca. being brought into contact with men of letters, soon ac- When in 1808 Miollis entered Rome, and the temporal quired a reputation, which for many years he did nothing power of the Pope was formally abolished, he broke off all to support. He was made councillor and secretary to the relations with the French, though several of them were his king; and this, together with a benevolent character, a intimate friends. In 1809 he was at Paris, and, in a refaultless taste, and a certain charm of disposition and con-markable interview, of which he has left a graphic account versation, gained him a host of friends in the highest in his memoirs, he received from Napoleon's own lips circles. Some, however, refused to join in the applause what was practically an apology for the treatment he had that everywhere greeted Conrart, and posterity has echoed received. With unbending dignity, however, he retained their verdict. His literary reputation has passed away his antagonism; and shortly afterwards he was one of the almost as completely as that of his friend Chapelain; and thirteen cardinals who refused to recognize the marriage a certain distinction of style, recognized by Sainte-Beuve, of Marie Louise. The result, as is well known, was a conIs all that he is now credited with. In 1629 Conrart's finement at Rheims which only terminated about three house became the resort of a knot of literary men, who met years afterwards, when Napoleon had extorted what terms to talk over professional subjects, and to read for advice he pleased from the half-captive Pope at Fontainebleau. and approval such work as they produced. The indiscre- On his release Consalvi hastened to his master's assistance; tion of one of the number led to an involuntary notoriety, and he was soon after permitted to resume his functions and to the influx into the meetings of the club of many under the restored pontificate at Rome. Despatched to strangers. Among these was Boisrobert, Richelieu's news- England to meet the allied sovereigns, he was well received monger and jester, who reported to his patron what he had both by king and people; and at the Congress of Vienna seen and heard. The cardinal offered the society his pro- he obtained the restitution of the Marches (Ancona, Tretection, and in this way (1634) the French Academy was viso, and Fermo) and the Legations (Bologna, Ferrara, and created. Conrart was unanimously elected secretary, and Ravenna). The rest of his life was spent in the work of discharged the duties of his post for forty-three years, till reorganizing the States of the Church, and bringing back his death in 1675. The intelligence and conscientiousness the allegiance of Europe to the Papal throne. He was he displayed in this capacity are perhaps his greatest titles practically governor of Rome; and Pius was so much under to distinction. To the last he rigidly adhered to his he- his control that "Pasquin" said the Pope would have to reditary faith. See ACADEMY, vol. i. p. 72; Petitot, Mé- wait at the gates of paradise till the cardinal came from moires Relatifs à l'Histoire de France, tome xlviii.; and purgatory with the keys. In his foreign policy he was acSainte-Beuve, Causeries de Lundi, 19 Juillet, 1858. tuated mainly by antagonism to Austria; in his domestic policy he imitated the centralizing system of France. In all essentials a most rigid churchman, he was disposed to yield in minor matters, and obtained the praise of many Protestant visitors to Rome for his affability and liberality. Science, literature, and especially the fine arts received his most abundant patronage; the ancient buildings of Rome were excavated and preserved by his direction; chairs of natural science and archæology were founded in the university; and extensive purchases were made for the Vatican Museum, which was augmented by the addition of the beautiful Braccio Nuovo, or new wing. These and the like expenses, however, were a heavy drain on the Papal treasury, and brought Consalvi into financial difficulties, from which he only got free by the imposing of unpopular taxes. On the death of Pius VII. he retired to his villa of Porto d'Anzio; and, though he afterwards accepted from the new Pope the honorary office of prefect of the college De Propaganda Fide, his political career was closed. He died on 22d of January, 1824, leaving the most of his moderate fortune to the poor. A fine portrait of Consalvi by Sir T. Lawrence is preserved at Windsor, and his tomb in South Marcello is surmounted by a monument by Rinaldi. The memoirs of his life, written with great freedom of stateCrétineau-Joly in 1864. See also M. de Pradt, Histoire des Quatre Concordats, 1818-1820; L. Cardinali, Elogio detto alla memoria del card. Consalvi; Cenni biografici sul Consalvi, published at Venice in 1824; Bartholdi, Züge aus dem Leben des Cardinals Herc. Consalvi, 1825; Cardinal Wiseman, Recollections of the last Four Popes, 1858; Crétineau-Joly, L'église Romaine en face de la Revolution, 1859; and Ernest Daudet, Le Cardinal Consalvi, 1866.

1

CONSALVI, or GONSALVI, ERCOLE (1757-1824), cardinal and statesman, was born at Rome on the 8th of June, 1757, of a noble family originally belonging to Pisa. His boyhood was sickly, and presents nothing remarkable. From the college of Urbino, he passed to the Frascati College and the religious academy at Rome, studying theology, politics, music, and literature. Entering the Pontifical court as page in 1783, he rapidly advanced, and in 1797 obtained the office of auditor of the rota, which brought him into public notice. Accused of participation in the assassination of Duphot, he was arrested by the French on their seizure of Rome, and after a period of incarceration condemned, like so many of his brethren, to exile. On the death of Pius VI. he succeeded, in conjunction with Cardinal Maury, in securing in the conclave at Venice the election of Chiaramonti as Pius VII.; and the new pope rewarded his devotion by appointing him secretary of state. Though from the beginning an avowed antagonist of the principles of the Revolution, Consalvi was too wise not to know that even Rome required in some degree to acknowledge their influence. He accordingly instituted various reforms, and but for the bitter opposition of the Conservative party his measures would have been more thoroughgoing than they were. He permitted lay-ment and considerable force of style, have been published by men to hold certain public offices, under surveillance of the prelates, organized a guard from among the Roman nobility, decreed a plan for redeeming the base coinage, permitted the communes a certain degree of municipal liberty, and promised the liquidation of the public debt. In the long debates between Rome and France about the Concordat, Consalvi was the leading power on the side of the church; and he fought for the Papal privileges during his visit to Paris, with a pertinacity and spirit that won at once the hatred and respect of Napoleon. Impressed with Napoleon's power, and anxious, if possible, to make him subservient to the designs of Rome, he strongly urged the Pope to accede to the conqueror's request that the imperial crown should be placed on his head by the most sacred hands in Christendom. During the Pope's absence on this mission he remained as virtual sovereign in Rome; and his regency was rendered remarkable by a great inundation, caused by the overflow of the Tiber, during which he exposed himself with heroic humanity, for the preservation of the sufferers. Not long after the return of the Pope, the amity between

CONSANGUINITY, or KINDRED, is defined by the writers on the subject to be vinculum personarum ab eodem stipite descendentium, that is, the connection or relation of persons descended from the same stock or common ancestor. This consanguinity is either lineal or collateral Lineal consanguinity is that which subsists between persons of whom one is descended in a direct line from the other, while collateral relations descend from the same stock or ancestor, but do not descend the one from the other. Collateral kinsmen, then, are such as lineally spring from one and the same ancestor, who is the stirps, or root, as well as the stipes, trunk, or common stock, whence these rela

tions branch out. It will be seen that the modern idea of | tion for orphans and the children of poor parents, other consanguinity is larger than that of agnatio in the civil law, which was limited to connection through males, and was modified by the ceremonies of adoption and emancipation, and also than that of cognatio, which did not go beyond the sixth generation, and was made the basis of Justinian's law of succession. The more limited meaning of consanguinei was brothers or sisters by the same father, as opposed to uterini, brothers or sisters by the same mother. The degrees of collateral consanguinity were differently reckoned in the civil and in the canon law. "The civil law reckons the number of descents between the persons on both sides from the common ancestor. The canon law counts the number of descents between the common ancestor and the two persons on one side only," and always on the side of the person who is more distant from the common ancestor. A recent American writer, Lewis Morgan (Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity in the Human Family, 1871), has given the terms used to denote kindred in 139 languages. The Mongoloids, the Malays, the Dravidas, and the American aborigines have the following system. All the descendants of a common ancestor or ancestors of the same generation call each other brother and sister; they call all males of the previous generations fathers, and of the following one sons. From this he draws the mistaken inference (shared by Lubbock) that the primitive marriage state was hetarisin, or community of wives. The linguistic facts are more probably connected with considerations of social rank, and such associations as the vendetta. In fact, except Egypt and Persia, nearly the whole world, both civilized and savage, have joined in repudiating incest. The chief danger has now been seen to lie in the risk of transmitting defects in an aggravated form. The force of the feeling is seen in the custom of wife-stealing, or exogamy by violence. In many places even identity of name is held to be an impediment to marriage. (See also M'Lennan On Primitive Marriage, 2d edition, 1876.) CONSCRIPTION. See ARMY, vol. ii., pp. 495, 526, 527, &c.

CONSECRATION, the act of devoting anything to sacred uses. The Mosaic law ordained that all the firstborn both of man and beast should be consecrated to God. We find also that Joshua consecrated the Gibeonites, as Solomon and David did the Nethinims, to the service of the Temple; and that the Hebrews sometimes consecrated their fields and cattle to the Lord, after which they were no longer in their own power. In England (and, indeed, in all countries where any form of episcopacy prevails) churches have always been consecrated with particular ceremonies, the form of which is either left in a great measure to the discretion of the bishops, or provided for in the recognized office-books. Cemeteries are in like manner episcopally consecrated. Consecration is also used for the benediction of the elements in the Eucharist. Consecration, or the ancient heathen ceremony of the apotheosis of an emperor, is thus represented on medals:-On one side is the emperor's head, crowned with laurel, sometimes veiled while the inscription gives him the title of divus; on the reverse is a temple, a bustum, an altar, or an eagle taking its flight towards heaven, either from off the altar, or from a cippus. In others the emperor is borne up in the air by the eagle. The inscription is always consecratio. These are the usual symbols; but on the reverse of that of Antoninus is the Antonine column. In the apotheosis of empresses, instead of an eagle, there is a peacock. The honors rendered to these princes after death were explained by the words consecratio, pater, divus, and deus. Sometimes around the temple or altar are put the words memoria felix, or memoriæ æternæ; and for princesses, æternitas, and sider ibus recepta; whilst on the one side of the head is dea, or Oɛά. The term consecratio is also applied by Roman authors to the devotion of priests and temples to the gods; this is likewise called dedicatio and inauguratio. In Greek we find the verbs idpów, iɛpów, used to express the same idea, with the cognate noun ίδρυσις and (in late authors) καθιέρωσις. CONSERVATORY (Ital. Conservatorio, Fr. Conservatoire, Ger. Conservatorium), a name applied first in Italy, and afterwards throughout the Continent, to institutions for training in music and for preserving the true theory and practice of the art. They arose out of the necessity of providing trained choristers for the service of the church, and were generally maintained upon some charitable foundation which provided board in addition to a musical educa

pupils being occasionally taken on payment of fees. When fully equipped, each conservatorio had two maestri or principals, one for composition and one for singing, besides professors for the various instruments. Though St. Ambrose and Pope Leo I., in the 4th and 5th centuries respectively, are sometimes named in connection with the subject, the historic continuity of the conservatoire in its modern sense cannot be traced farther back than the 16th century. The first to which a definite date can be assigned is the Conser vatorio di Santa Maria di Loretto, at Naples, founded by Giovanni di Tappia in 1537. Three other similar schools were afterwards established in the city, of which the Conservatorio di Sant' Onofrio deserves special mention or account of the fame of its teachers, such as Alessandro Scarlatti, Leo, Durante, and Porpora. There were thus for a considerable time four flourishing conservatorios in Naples. Two of them, however, ceased to exist in the course of last century, and on the French occupation of the city the other two were united by Murat in a new institution under the title Real Collegio di Musica, which admitted pupils of both sexes, the earlier conservatorios having been exclusively for boys. In Venice, on the other hand, there were from an early date four conservatorios conducted on a similar plan to those in Naples, but exclusively for girls. These died out with the decay of the Venetian republic, and the centre of musical instruction for Northern Italy was transferred to Milan, where a conservatorio on a large scale was established by Prince Eugene Beauharnais in 1808. The celebrated conservatoire of Paris owes its origin to the École Royale de Chant et de Declamation, founded by Baron de Breteuil in 1784, for the purpose of training singers for the opera. Suspended during the stormy period of the Revolution, its place was taken by the Conservatoire de Musique, established in 1795 on the basis of a school for gratuitous instruction in military music, founded by the mayor of Paris in 1792. The plan and scale on which it was founded had to be modified more than once in succeeding years, but it continued to flourish, and in the interval between 1820 and 1840, under the direction of Cherubini, may be said to have led the van in musical progress in Europe. In more recent years that place of honor belongs decidedly to the conservatorium at Leipsic, founded by Mendelssohn in 1842, which, so far as composition and instrumental music are concerned, is now the chief resort of those who wish to rise to eminence in the art. Of other Continental conservatoires of the first rank may be named those of Prague, founded in 1810, of Brussels, founded in 1833 and long presided over by the celebrated Fetis, of Cologne, founded in 1849, and those instituted more recently at Munich and Berlin, the instrumental school in the latter being under the direction of Joachim. In England the functions of a conservatoire have been discharged by the Royal Acad emy of Music of London, which was founded in 1822, and received a charter of incorporation in 1830. With very limited resources, as compared with the larger Continental establishments, it has done excellent service in providing a constant succession of thoroughly-trained professional musicians. A national training-school of music was opened at South Kensington under distinguished auspices in May, 1876, the object being to provide a free education of the highest kind to pupils of remarkable promise as tested by examination.

CONSISTORY, a term applied originally to an ante chamber or outer-room of the palace of the emperors of Rome, where the petitioners for justice assembled and awaited the presence of the emperor, who upon his entrance into the consistory took his seat upon a tribunal, whilst the others stood around him (consistebant). The word "consistory," as a term of ecclesiastical law, in which sense it is for the most part employed in modern times, came to be used first of all to denote certain ecclesiastical councils, in which the bishop was seated, whilst the presby ters and other clergy stood around him. It came by degrees to be used generally for all ecclesiastical councils in which a bishop presided, and in which matters of order rather than of doctrine were discussed and decided. The term "consistory," as used in the Latin Church, is applied at Rome to denote the assembly of the cardinals convoked by the Pope. This assembly is styled a consistory, "quia simul præsente Papa consistunt cardinales," the Pope's presence being a necessary condition to constitute the assembly of the cardinals a consistory.