called Pera, so Pera seems to have been sometimes included in Galata. Galata-Serai, the palace of the Turkish governor of Galata (now a Franco-Turkish lyceum), is situated in the centre of Pera. The name Galata, which has been the subject of much discussion, appears to be the corruption of the Italian Calata (descent), the name whereby that quarter of an Italian seaport town is known which spreads over the sloping shore. Until a few years ago Galata and Pera were separated by a dry moat. This has lately been filled up with streets. Bridges. Two bridges of boats span the Golden Horn and unite Galata to Stamboul. The inner one, constructed of iron, though new, has, in taking the place, adopted the name of a former bridge constructed in the reign of the Sultan Mahmoud, and is still called the Old Bridge. It stretches from the western end of Galata to the quarter on the Stamboul side which is called Oun-Capou. The outer bridge is known as that of Karakeui, as it extends from a part of Galata so named, and also as the bridge of the Valideh-Sultan, because the opposite end of it rests on the shore below the mosque of the ValidehSultan, otherwise Yeni Jami, or the new mosque. A third bridge, constructed during the Crimean war between Hasskeui and Aivan Serai, has disappeared. There is said to have existed in ancient times one bridge-that of Justinian. The bridge built by Philip of Macedon seems to have crossed the river at the head of the Horn. Climate.

The climate of Constantinople is generally healthy, owing to the position of the city, its natural drainage, and the currents of the Bosphorus, but the temperature is subject to great and sudden changes.

It is true of the capital, as of the country at Population. large, that no point is so hard to ascertain as the sum total of the inhabitants and the relative proportions of its parts. Byzantius in 1851 reckoned the population of the city and its suburbs at about one million, viz.,-500,000 Turks, 220,000 or 300,000 Greeks, 50,000 or 120,000 Armenians, 70,000 Jews, 10,000 Franks, and 70,000 miscellaneous. Official statistics return the population of the city and suburbs as not exceeding 700,000 in

1877.

Education.

The Mahometan public schools are of three classes: (1) The primary district schools-Mahaleh-for boys and girls mixed; (2) for boys, the provincial schools-Rushdiyeh-of a higher order; (3) for young men, the mosque schools-Medresseh,-a sort of theological seminaries. There are said to be 500 medressels in Stamboul alone. In the first class of schools are taught the Turkish alphabet and the reading of the Koran in Arabic; in the second, reading, elements of writing, principles of arithmetic, and Turkish geography and history; in the third, besides theology, Turkish, Arabic, and sometimes the Persian language. The age of entrance into the first is about five years; into the second, ten. Most lads, on leaving these secondary schools, at about sixteen years of age, proceed no higher. Besides the public schools, which are open to all Mahometan youth without distinction, there are special Government schools. The five chief establishments are the military, naval, and artillery schools, the school of military engineering, and the medical school. To each of these is annexed a preparatory school-Idadiyek. A few other special schools are a training-school for teachers in the Rushdiyeh, a school of languages for translators, and a school for managers of woods and forests. The most important institution for supplying good secondary instruction is the metropolitan lyceum of Galata, which has generally been under French direction. A large school for orphans of different nationalities was opened some years ago near the mosque of Selim in Stamboul.

Among the philanthropic establishments of the capital must be reckoned the Imarets, intended like the Greek Xenones to be at once hospitals and poor-houses. They are attached to most of the mosques, and may be about 300, though many are fallen into decay.

The bazaars call for particular notice. They are large fire-proof buildings, lighted from above, where the varied wares of the city are retailed.

The city numbers, besides, about 180 khans (groups of offices and store-houses for merchandise), and some 130 hammams, or baths. Trade.

The trade of Constantinople carried on now, as under the Greek empire, by foreigners, is not distinguished by any specialty. Its harbor is a convenient

centre to many lines of commerce, sheep's wool, mohair, goat-skins, grain, &c., being transshipped from the coasts of Asia and the Black Sea. Great improvements have been introduced of late. Besides the steamers which secure communication with foreign ports, others ply be tween the city and its suburbs on the Horn, the Bosphorus, and the Sea of Marmora.

The streets, though ill paved, have been some Fireof them enlarged, and many on the Pera side brigade. are lighted with gas; but the greatest improvement of all is the formation of an active and highly disciplined fire-brigade.

monu

It is sometimes said that modern Constantinople, after so many earthquakes in earlier cen- Ancient turies, and conflagrations in all, retains few ments. relics of the past; but several monuments have been already named, and others might be added. They are most numerous about the Hippodrome-that centre and focus of the city's life, and theatre of its revolutions, its festivities, and its crimes. Besides the remains of six palaces, five columns entire or in fragments are pointed out-memorials of the 1st, 3d, 4th, and 5th centuries, and associated with the historical names of Claudius II. and Constantine, Theodosius and Arius, Arcadius, Eudoxia, Marcian, and Chrysostom. Tombs of the great lie about in various corners and courts. It is to be remembered, moreover, that the greater part of the Greek city is under ground,-that besides the ruins or remains of more than 20 churches, and of the colonnades that lined the streets or divided the bazaars, and which still are met with by the passenger along its public thoroughfares, there spread out of sight beneath his feet labyrinths of passages, cisterns, and prisons of length and direction unknown, so that he may be said to walk not so much on terra firma as on a continuous roof.

The history of the city is almost a record of History. its sieges. About 100 years after its enlargement or foundation by Constantine the Great (330 a. D.) began that series of assaults by sea and land before which it gave way only thrice, when its gates were opened to Dandolo, Michael Palæologus, and Mahomet II. Michael, by the aid of his Varangians, recovered, 200 years before its final capture, what the Latins had held nearly 60 years; and 100 years before it surrendered, the Ottoman Turks profited by the divisions in the empire, and were called into the east of Europe as the followers of the same antiChristian standard had been called into the west, till the last Constantine fell in defending the city which the first had raised and named. Constantinople was threatened by the Huns in the reign of Theodosius the younger, 450; by the Huns and Slavs in that of Justinian, 553; by the Persians and Avars in that of Heraclius, 626. The Arabs besieged it in three different expeditions. They came under Sophian in 668, and attacked it six times, once every year (672-679), when Constantine Pogonatus was emperor. Leo the Isaurian repelled a second invasion under Mos lemeh in 717. They were finally led by Haroun-al-Rashid, who made peace with Constantine and Irene in 782. The Russians assailed the sea-walls of the capital four times from 865 to 1043, in the reigns of Michael ILI. and his successors. Romanus Leoapenus, who beat them back when they were come down the second time, had to repel another enemy-the Hungarians-in 924. It was not by arms but by the treachery of Gilpracht, the leader of the German guard, that Alexius Comnenus entered one of the land-gates and seized the throne (1081); and another Alexius, with his father Isaac Angelus, brought the Latins, who occupied the city for 56 years, after the two sieges of 1203 and 1204, until Michael Palæologus embossed his name as conqueror on the bronze gates of St. Sophia. In the 15th century Constantinople was attacked by the Turks twice; under Manuel it resisted Amurath in 1422; but under Constantine Palæologus it yielded to Mahomet in 1453. The city has thus been often the aim, rarely the prize, of invasion.

The captures of the city by the Latins and the Turks brought loss to the East and gain to the West. In an age when the Goths on the one side and Arabs on the other, had ruined traffic elsewhere, Constantinople was the greatest and almost the only commercial town in the world, while Greek supremacy at sea secured a flow of riches into the state; but the citizens being dispersed during the sixty years of Latin occupation, all commerce was trans

ferred to the cities of Italy. To that Latin conquest is mainly attributed the sudden development of the formative arts in the 13th century, for then there arose more frequent intercourse between the Greeks and the Italians, and many Greek artists were established in Italy, especially at Venice, Siena, Pisa, and Florence. In like manner the fall of the city before the Turks scattered Greek learning among the Latin and Teutonic races; when Greek libraries were burnt and the Greek language proscribed, Greek MSS. of the Bible, sedulously copied by the monks of Constantinople from the 5th to the 15th century, conveyed the text into Western Europe; the overthrow of the capital of Greek literature synchronized with the invention of printing, and in a great measure caused the revival of learning. Since that last siege which introduced the Ottoman rule, the city, from being the object, became the starting-point of invasion; for long ages the busy hive of science and art, it was turned into a swarming nest of hornets. The mausoleum of Haireddin (Barbarossa) at Beshiktash, a suburb of the city, is a memorial of the subjugation of the Northern States of Africa; a ruin, beneath the Burnt Column, once the residence of Busbek, in the 16th century, bears witness to the privileges and the restraints of the ambassadors of Germany; and inscriptions left on the inner walls of the Seven Towers, ranging in date from 1698 to 1800, record the imprisonment and the liberation or death of captives, Venetians, French, &c., and the obstinate struggles in which the Ottomans engaged with the different powers of Europe. The last European ambassador imprisoned there was Le Brun, envoy of the French republic; he was thrown in on the news of the French landing in Egypt, and remained three years. After the tide of fortune turned on the repulse of the Turkish forces from Vienna in 1683, Constantinople began to be once more the special mark for ambition or revenge. When the peace of Carlowitz was signed in 1699 a new enemy was rising in the North; in 1770 the city was threatened by the Russian fleet joined by the English squadron. In 1807 Vice-Admiral Duckworth, having forced the passage of the Dardanelles, appeared before Constantinople, but the Turks put themselves in a posture of defence, and after eight days the squadron retreated. For further historical details, see TURKEY.

Authorities-Paspati, Déthier, Glavany (local), besides Alemann on Procopius, Byzantius, Gibbon, Montesquieu, &c. (C. G. C.) CONSTANTINUS CEPHALAS. See ANTHOLOGY, vol. ii. p. 91.

CONSTANTIUS, FLAVIUS VALERIUS, commonly called CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS, or the Pale (an epithet first applied by the Byzantine historians, though with doubtful accuracy, for there is evidence to show that he was, like his son, ruddy), Roman emperor and father of Constantine the Great, was born of noble Dalmatian family about 250 A. D. Having distinguished himself by his military ability and his able and gentle rule of Dalmatia, he was, in March, 292, adopted and appointed Cæsar by Maximian, whose daughter Theodosia he was obliged to marry after renouncing his wife Helena. By Helena he became the father of Constantine. He obtained the title Augustus in 305, and died the following year. See ROMAN HISTORY.

CONSTITUTION AND CONSTITUTIONAL LAW. The word Constitution in the time of the Roman empire signified a collection of laws or ordinances made by the emperor. We find the word used in the same sense in the early history of English law, e.g., the Constitutions of Clarendon. In its modern use constitution has been restricted to those rules which concern the political structure of society. If we take the accepted definition of a law as a command imposed by a sovereign on the subject, the constitution would consist of the rules which point out where the sovereign is to be found, the form in which his powers are exercised, and the relations of the different members of the sovereign body to each other where it consists of more persons than one. In every independent political society, it is assumed by these definitions, there will be found somewhere or other a sovereign, whether that sovereign be a single person, or a body of persons, or several bodies of persons. The commands imposed by the 30vereign person or body on the rest of the society are positive laws, properly so called. The sovereign body not only makes laws, but has two other leading functions, viz.,

those of judicature and administration. Legislation is for the most part performed directly by the sovereign body itself; judicature and administration, for the most part, by delegates. The constitution of a society, accordingly, would show how the sovereign body is composed, and what are the relations of its members inter se, and how the sovereign functions of legislation, judicature, and administration are exercised. Constitutional law consists of the rules relating to these subjects, and these rules may either be laws properly so called, or they may not-i.e., they may or may not be commands imposed by the sovereign body itself. The constitutional rule, for example, that the Queen and Parliament are the sovereign, cannot be called a law; for a law presupposes the fact which it asserts. And other rules, which are constantly observed in practice, but have never been enacted by the sovereign power, are in the same way constitutional rules which are not laws. It is an undoubted rule of the constitution that the king shall not refuse his assent to a bill which has passed both Houses, but it is certainly not a law. Should the king veto such a bill his action would be unconstitutional, but not illegal. On the other hand the rules relating to the election of members to the House of Commons are nearly all positive laws strictly so called. Constitutional law, as the phrase is commonly used, would include all the laws dealing with the sovereign body in the exercise of its various functions, and all the rules, not being laws properly so called, relating to the same subject. The above is an attempt to indicate the meaning of the phrases in their stricter or more technical uses. Some wider meanings may be noticed. In the phrase constitutional government, a form of government based on certain principles which may roughly be called popular is the leading idea. England, Switzerland, the United States, are all constitutional governments in this sense of the word. Russia, France under the last empire, and Spain, on the other hand, would generally be said to be countries without constitutional government. A country where a large portion of the people has some considerable share in the supreme power would be a constitutional country. On the other hand constitutional, as applied to governments, may mean stable as opposed to unstable and anarchic societies. Again, as a term of politics, constitutional has come to mean, in England at least, not obedience to constitutional rules as above described, but adherence to the existing type of the constitution or to some conspicuous portions thereof,-in other words, Conservative. Thus the abolition of the Irish Church, which was in every way a constitutional measure in the judicial meaning of words, was not a constitutional measure in the party sense. country like Spain, on the other hand, the party called constitutional is liberal.

In &

The ideas associated with constitution and constitutionalism are thus, it will be seen, mainly of modern and European growth. They are wholly inapplicable to the primitive and simple societies of the present or of former times. The discussion of forms of government occupies a large space in the writings of the Greek philosophers,—a fact which is to be explained by the existence among the Greeks of many independent political communities, variously organized, and more or less democratic in character Between the political problems of the smaller societies and those of the great European nations there is no useful parallel to be drawn, although the predominance of classical learning made it the fashion for a long time to apply Greek speculations on the nature of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy to public questions in modern Europe. Representation, the characteristic principle of European constitutions, has, of course, no place in societies which were not too large to admit of every free citizen participating personally in the business of government. Nor is there much in the politics or the political literature of the Romans to compare with the constitutions of modern states. Their political system was almost from the beginning one of empire, ruled absolutely by a small assembly or by one man.

The impetus to constitutional government in modern times has to a large extent come from England, and it is from English politics that the phrase and its associations have been borrowed. England has offered to the world the one conspicuous example of a long, continuous, and orderly development of political institutions. The early date at which the principle of self-government was estab

even when the pressure is removed. These fluids are called liquids.

When a liquid is placed in a vessel so large that it only occupies a part of it, part of the liquid begins to evaporate, or in other words it passes into the state of a gas, and this process goes on either till the whole of the liquid is evaporated, or till the density of the gaseous part of the substance has reached a certain limit. The liquid and the gaseous portions of the substance are then in equilibrium. If the volume of the vessel be now made smaller, part of the gas will be condensed as a liquid, and if it be made larger, part of the liquid will be evaporated as a gas.

The processes of evaporation and condensation, by which the substance passes from the liquid to the gaseous, and from the gaseous to the liquid state, are discontinuous processes, that is to say, the properties of the substance are very different just before and just after the change had been effected. But this difference is less in all respects the higher the temperature at which the change takes place, and Cagniard de la Tour in 18221 first showed that several substances, such as ether, alcohol, bisulphide of carbon, and water, when heated to a temperature sufficiently high, pass into a state which differs from the ordinary gaseous state as much as from the liquid state. Dr. Andrews has since made a complete investigation of the properties of carbonic acid both below and above the temperature at which the phenomena of condensation and evaporation cease to take place, and has thus explored as well as established the continuity of the liquid and gaseous states of

matter.

There are a great many substances which so far correspond to this definition of a fluid that they cannot remain in permanent equilibrium if the stress within them is not uniform in all directions.

In all existing fluids, however, when their motion is such that the shape of any small portion is continually changing, the internal stress is not uniform in all directions, but is of such a kind as to tend to check the relative motion of the parts of the fluid.

This capacity of having inequality of stress called into play by inequality of motion is called viscosity. All real fluids are viscous, from treacle and tar to water and ether and air and hydrogen.

When the viscosity is very small the fluid is said to be mobile, like water and ether.

When the viscosity is so great that a considerable in equality of stress, though it produces a continuously in creasing displacement, produces it so slowly that we can hardly see it, we are often inclined to call the substance a solid, and even a hard solid. Thus the viscosity of cold pitch or of asphalt is so great that the substance will break rather than yield to any sudden blow, and yet if it is left for a sufficient time it will be found unable to remain in equilibrium under the slight inequality of stress produced by its own weight, but will flow like a fluid till its surface becomes level.

If, therefore, we define a fluid as a substance which cannot remain in permanent equilibrium under a stress not equal in all directions, we must call these substances fluids, though they are so viscous that we can walk on them without leaving any footprints.

If we examine the substance when part of it is condensed, we find that the liquid carbonic acid at the bottom of the vessel has all the properties of a liquid, and is separated by a distinct surface from the gaseous carbonic acid which occupies the upper part of the vessel.

But we may transform gaseous carbonic acid at 0° C. into liquid carbonic acid at 0° C., without any abrupt change, by first raising the temperature of the gas above 30°-92 C. which is the critical temperature, then raising the pressure to about 80 atmospheres, and then cooling the substance, still at high pressure, to zero.

During the whole of this process the substance remains perfectly homogeneous. There is no surface of separation between two forms of the substance, nor can any sudden change be observed like that which takes place when the gas is condensed into a liquid at low temperatures; but at the end of the process the substance is undoubtedly in the liquid state, for if we now diminish the pressure to somewhat less than 40 atmospheres the substance will exhibit the ordinary distinction between the liquid and the gaseous state, that is to say, part of it will evaporate, leaving the rest at the bottom of the vessel, with a distinct surface of separation between the gaseous and the liquid parts.

The passage of a substance between the liquid and the solid state takes place with various degrees of abruptness. Some substances, such as some of the more crystalline metals, seem to pass from a completely fluid to a completely solid state very suddenly. In some cases the melted matter appears to become thicker before it solidifies, but this may arise from a multitude of solid crystals being formed in the still liquid mass, so that the consistency of the mass becomes like that of a mixture of sand and water, till the melted matter in which the crystals are swimming becomes all solid.

There are other substances, most of them colloidal, such that when the melted substance cools it becomes more and more viscous, passing into the solid state with hardly any discontinuity. This is the case with pitch.

The theory of the consistency of solid bodies will be discussed in the article ELASTICITY, but the manner in which a solid behaves when acted on by stress furnishes us with a system of names of different degrees and kinds of solidity. A fluid, as we have seen, can support a stress only when it is uniform in all directions, that is to say, when it is of the nature of a hydrostatic pressure.

1 Annales de Chimie, 2me série, xxi. et xxii.
Phil. Trans., 1869, p. 575.

The ratio of the numerical value of the stress to the numerical value of the strain produced by it is called the coefficient of elasticity, and the ratio of the strain to the stress is called the coefficient of pliability.

There are as many kinds of these coefficients as there are kinds of stress and of strains or components of strains produced by them.

If, then, the values of the coefficients of elasticity were to increase without limit, the body would approximate to the condition of a rigid body.

We may form an elastic body of great pliability by dissolving gelatine or isinglass in hot water and allowing the solution to cool into a jelly. By diminishing the proportion of gelatine the coefficient of elasticity of the jelly may be diminished, so that a very small force is required to produce a large change of form in the substance.

When the deformation of an elastic body is pushed beyond certain limits depending on the nature of the substance, it is found that when the stress is removed it does not return exactly to its original shape, but remains permanently deformed. These limits of the different kinds. of strain are called the limits of perfect elasticity.

There are other limits which may be called the limits of cohesion or of tenacity, such that when the deformation of the body reaches these limits the body breaks, tears asunder, or otherwise gives way, and the continuity of its substance is destroyed.

A body which can have its form permanently changed without any flaw or break taking place is called mid When the force required is small the body is said to be soft; when it is great the body is said to be tough. A body which becomes flawed or broken before it can be permanently deformed is called brittle. When the force required is great the body is said to be hard.

The stiffness of a body is measured by the force required to produce a given amount of deformation.

Its strength is measured by the force required to break or crush it.

We may conceive a solid body to approximate to the condition of a fluid in several different ways.

If we knead fine clay with water, the more water we add the softer does the mixture become, till at last we have water with particles of clay slowly subsiding through it. This is an instance of a mechanical mixture the constituents of which separate of themselves. But if we mix beeswax with oil, or rosin with turpentine, we may form permanent mixtures of all degrees of softness, and so pass from the solid to the fluid state through all degrees of vis cosity.