from academies and learned societies. By a French decree of November 17, 1914, all German subjects (except residents of Alsace-Lorraine who were of French origin) who had received appointments in the Legion of Honor were dismissed as an act of reprisal against the Germans for various acts of barbarity and especially for their destruction of historic monuments.49 As an answer to the manifesto of the ninety-three German intellectuals, most of the French academies and learned societies expelled members who were the subjects of enemy Powers.

As in England, the hostility to Germans and Austro-Hungarians was not confined to those who were subjects of an enemy Power, but it was extended to persons of enemy origin who had been naturalized in France. Although the policy of denationalization was not resorted to in England (there was, however, considerable popular demand for it), in fact naturalized British subjects of enemy origin were interned, as has been stated, and otherwise subjected to the same restrictions and disabilities as those imposed upon enemy subjects. France went further, and by an Act of Parliament of April 7, 1915, provided for the denationalization of naturalized French citizens born in enemy countries.50 The measure was made compulsory in the case of those who had borne arms against France or who had left French territory to escape military service or who had directly or indirectly given aid to the enemy. All naturalization certificates granted to the subjects of enemy countries since January 1, 1913, were to be revoked. The Minister of Justice was required to make known within three months the names of all other naturalized Frenchmen who in his judgment were deemed worthy of retaining their French nationality. The certificates of all others were to be withdrawn and the denationalization to be considered as having taken effect from the date of the outbreak of the war, without prejudice to the rights of third parties.51

49 Text in Législation de la Guerre, Vol. I, p. 206, and Rev. Gén., 1915, Docs. p. 38.

50 Inhabitants of Alsace-Lorraine who were French citizens prior to 1871, or descendants of such persons, were excepted.

61 Législation de la Guerre, Vol. II, p. 101; Dalloz, Vol. IV, p. 114.

GERMAN POLICY

Aside from the refusal of the German Government to allow any days of grace during which enemy aliens might leave, such as were allowed in England and France, the general policy of the German Government was less drastic in the beginning than that of either the British or French Governments, for there the problem was less serious owing to the relatively small number of enemy aliens and the absence of any such extensive system of espionage as existed in England and France. Strong complaints, however, were made in England of the harsh treatment to which British subjects, especially invalids at Nauheim, Carlsbad, and other places were subjected, and of the imprisonment of others.52 Both British and French nationals are said to have been summarily expelled from various cities, without distinction as to age or sex, and without being allowed to take their baggage with them. For a time no general legislative or administrative measures affecting enemy aliens were adopted. They were allowed access to the courts (unless domiciled abroad), their property and business enterprises were not put under sequestration, and there was no wholesale internment of the enemy alien population in concentration camps. Very soon, however, in consequence of reports reaching Germany that large numbers of Germans were being arbitrarily arrested and im

52 Satow, Treatment of Enemy Aliens, Publications of Grotius Society, Vol. II, p. 8. Serious charges were also made by the French Government against the German authorities for the rough and brutal treatment to which its consuls at Manheim, Düsseldorf, Stuttgart, and other places were subjected. See the reports made by these consuls to their government, Rev. Gén. de Droit Int. Pub., July-Oct., 1915, Docs. pp. 62-64 and pp. 72-73.

The Russian Government also complained of various brutalities to which its nationals in Germany were subjected. See text of a circular communicated to the press by the Russian Embassy at Paris on Jan. 13, 1915, Rev. Gen. de Droit Int. Pub., July-Oct., 1915, Docs. pp. 105-109. Ambassador Gerard says all Japanese in Germany were immediately imprisoned upon the outbreak of war between the two countries. Popular hostility toward Japanese residents, he says, was very strong. No restaurant in Berlin would admit them and they had to be supplied with food by the American Embassy. When Mr. Gerard finally obtained permission for them to leave Germany, he had to send an escort with them to the Swiss frontier to protect them against attack. Gerard, My Four Years in Germany, Philadelphia Public Ledger, Sept. 9, 1917, p. 1.

prisoned in England and that the entire German population had been compelled to evacuate certain regions of France, the German Government proceeded to adopt retaliatory measures. In a dispatch of November 8, 1914, to Mr. Page,53 Mr. Gerard stated that the German Government did not question the right of the British Government to arrest German subjects suspected of espionage, but that "great popular resentment has been created by the reports of the arrests of other Germans, and the German authorities could not explain or understand why German travelers who have been taken from ocean steamers should not be permitted to remain at liberty." Up to the 6th of November, the dispatch stated, considerable liberty of movement had been allowed to British subjects in Germany, and they had been allowed to carry on their business without serious interference. There appear to have been no serious outbreaks against British or French nationals in Germany and no wrecking of shops or other property.

On the latter date an order was issued by the German Government for the general internment of all British males between the ages of seventeen and fifty-five. 54 This order, it was added, "was occasioned by the pressure of public opinion, which had been still further excited by the newspaper reports of a considerable number of deaths in the concentration camps." 55 As in England and France, civilian prisoners were segregated and confined in specially improvised concentration camps, most of the British being housed in the buildings of a race course at Ruheleben near Berlin. There were, of course, the usual complaints of harsh treatment of prisoners in the German concentration

53 Misc. No. 8 (1915), [Cd. 7857], p. 19.

54 Regarding the legal status of interned civilians in Germany, the Reichsgericht held, in August, 1915, that they were not prisoners of war in the sense in which the term is used in the Hague Convention. They were not, therefore, liable to trial by a military tribunal. Text in Clunet, 1917, pp. 257 ff.

55 Americans in Germany have not as yet been interned. According to an official announcement from Berlin on April 14, 1917, they were to be treated along the same lines as laid down in President Wilson's proclamation concerning the treatment of Germans in the United States. They appear to have been allowed substantially the same freedom of movement and business activity as was allowed neutral persons, except as to residence in fortified places. According to a press dispatch of April 24, 1917, however, American newspaper correspondents were notified that their presence was no longer "desirable," and they accordingly transferred their residences to neutral countries.

The

camps, and some of them were undoubtedly well founded.56 second report of the French commission of inquiry, appointed to make inquiries concerning the treatment of civil prisoners, charges that about 10,000 French men, women, and children were "carried off into the enemy's land and kept in captivity" in concentration camps, where they were insufficiently fed, subjected to the most humiliating punishments, and compelled to perform the most painful and degrading tasks. In pursuance of the exchange agreement referred to above, a large number of French civilian prisoners were repatriated, and it was on the basis of their testimony that the charges of the French commission were made.

The Russian Government also complained of the harsh and brutal treatment which Russian men, women, and children are alleged to have received at the hands of the German authorities. They were, it was charged, rounded up, carried away in dirty cattle trucks, confined in stables and pigsties, compelled to march with their hands tied behind them, and otherwise maltreated. All Russian males between the ages of eighteen and fifty were arrested as prisoners of war and were forbidden to take their effects with them to the prison camps.57

"For an elaborate description of life in the Ruheleben Prison camp and the treatment received by the prisoners, see the remarkable book of Israel Cohen entitled, The Ruheleben Prison Camp (New York, 1917). The author was a prisoner in the camp for nineteen months. For the first two years of the war between 4000 and 5000 British subjects were confined in this camp. The number was reduced to some 3000 in 1917 in consequence of the exchange arrangement referred to above. See also the report of an investigation into the conditions of this camp by representatives of the American Embassy in a British White Paper, Misc. No. 3 (1915), [Cd. 8161].

57 These and other charges are contained in a report issued by the Russian Government, the text of which may be found in the Rev. Gén. de Droit. Int. Pub., July-Oct., 1915, Docs. pp. 105-109. See also Coleman Phillipson, International Law and the Great War, p. 89.

In December, 1917, an arrangement was entered into between the German and Russian Governments, through the medium of the American Minister at Stockholm and the American Ambassador at Petrograd, for the reciprocal repatriation of all women, children, and men over forty-five years of age held as civilian prisoners in both countries. It was stated that the agreement embraced about 100,000 Germans in Russia, although the number of Russians in Germany affected was inconsiderable.

AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN POLICY

Although the Austro-Hungarian Government, like that of Germany, did not accord a period of grace during which enemy aliens might leave, its policy in other respects appears to have been especially lenient.

Eric Fisher Wood, who spent some time in Austria and Hungary in the service of the American Embassy, states that the Hungarian Government did not molest alien enemies at all and that there was no wholesale internment of enemy subjects in concentration camps. British horse trainers and French governesses, he says, went tranquilly about their peaceful occupations, and English tailors advertised their services in the newspapers; their clients patronized them as formerly, and French chefs continued to hold their positions as before the war. This lenient treatment was accorded in spite of the fact that Hungarians had been interned by the French Government.58

By an imperial ordinance of October 16, 1914, the Austro-Hungarian Government was authorized to take, by way of reprisal, such measures against foreigners and foreign establishments as might be necessary to prevent the furnishing of supplies to the enemy.59 Early in the war an arrangement was entered into with the Austro-Hungarian Government by the Governments of Great Britain and France for the reciprocal repatriation of women and children, males under the age of seventeen and over fifty, and males between those ages who by reason of certain infirmities or diseases were incapacitated for military service.

58 Notebook of an Attaché, p. 284. There is reason to believe, however, that the policy of the Austro-Hungarian Government toward Italians was much less liberal, partly, no doubt, because the very large number of Italians in AustriaHungary, especially in the region which became the theater of hostilities, made the problem of their treatment a more serious one. The Italian Government complained that some 30,000 of its nationals were expelled from Trieste, Gorizia, and Gradisca, none of whom were allowed to return to Italy. They were, instead, loaded on freight cars, it is charged, deported to the interior, and interned in concentration camps, without distinction as to age or sex.

59 Text in Reulos, Manuel des Sequestrés, pp. 444-5, and Clunet, 1916, p. 357.