Pathos he exaggerated for dramatic effect. Nevertheless, his tragedies contain some of the greatest scenes after Shakespeare. In comedy he was weak. His Dramatic Works, with those of Massinger, were edited by Hartley Coleridge (new ed. London, 1883), and an edition of Plays, selected, by Ellis, appeared in the "Mermaid Series" (London, 1888).

FORD, JOHN THOMSON (1829-94). An American theatrical manager, born at Baltimore. He became manager of the Holliday Street Theatre in Baltimore, where he was elected president of the Municipal Council (1858), and was Acting Mayor for two years. At Washington, D. C., he built three theatres, one of which was that known as Ford's Theatre, the scene of the assassination of President Lincoln by Booth on April 14, 1865. On suspicion of complicity in connection with the deed, he was arrested and imprisoned for forty days. He was then released, inasmuch as absolutely no evidence was adduced against him. In 1871 he built Ford's Grand Opera House at Baltimore. He was long one of the board of governors of the Maryland Penitentiary, and at one time president of the board of directors of the Baltimore and Ohio Railway.

sources

An

FORD, MASTER. In Shakespeare's Merry Wives of Windsor, a jealous husband, to whom, under the name of Master Brook, Falstaff relates the course of his attempted wooing of Mrs. Ford. FORD, PAUL LEICESTER (1865-1902). American historian and novelist, born in Brooklyn, N. Y. He was privately educated, and after wide travels in both hemispheres he devoted himself to investigations in the of American history, and edited the Writings of Thomas Jefferson, in ten volumes (1892); the Writings of Thomas Dickinson (2 vols.); The Federalist (1886), etc. These studies led to The True George Washington (1896); The ManySided Franklin (1899); and The New England Primer, with many minor writings of like character. To fiction he contributed: The Honorable Peter Sterling (1894); The Great K. & A. Train Robbery (1897); The Story of an Untold Love (1897); Tattle Tales of Cupid (1898); a collection of short stories; Janice Meredith (1899); Wanted: A Matchmaker (1901); and Wanted: A Chaperon (1902). Mr. Ford also did valuable work in the Bibliographer, which he founded, and of which he was editor at the time of his death.

FORD, RICHARD (1796-1858). An English writer. He graduated at Trinity College, Oxford, in 1817, and was afterwards called to the bar, but never practiced. He spent four years traveling in Spain, and in 1845 published his delightful Handbook for Travelers in Spain. A second edition was smaller in bulk, and the material left out was published in Gatherings from Spain (1846). Ford also contributed important papers on Spanish art to the Quarterly Review and other periodicals. In 1837 he published a pamphlet entitled Historical Inquiry into the Unchangeable Character of a War with Spain.

FORD, WORTHINGTON CHAUNCEY (1858–). An American author and statistician, born and educated in Brooklyn, N. Y. After several years spent in the publishing and newspaper business, he was appointed, in 1885, chief of the Bureau of Statistics of the Department of State in Wash

ington, continuing in that position until 1891. From 1893 to 1898 he was chief statistician of the Treasury Department, and in the latter year became connected with the Boston Public Library. In 1902 he was also appointed expert accountant to the municipal government of New York City. He wrote The American Citizen's Manual (1883); The Standard Silver Dollar (1884); George Washington (1901), and numerous monographs and pamphlets on historical, biographical, and economic subjects. He revised David A. Wells's Natural Philosophy (1879), and edited the Correspondence and Journals of Samuel Blachley Webb (1893-94) and The Writings of George Washington (1889-91), his most important work.

FORD'HAM. Formerly a village in Westchester County, N. Y., but since 1874 a part of New York City, being now included in the Borough of the Bronx. Saint John's College, a Jesuit institution, is situated here (Map: Greater New York, D 2). Originally, along with Yonkers, in the possession of Adrian Vander Donck, Fordham was erected into a manor in 1671, and became a separate parish in 1850.

FORDIL'LA (Neo-Lat., named in honor of the discoverer, S. W. Ford). A small bivalve shell found in the limestones of Lower Cambrian age of Rensselaer and Columbia counties, New York, and supposed to be the oldest known pelecypod cr clam-shell. See CAMBRIAN SYSTEM; PELE

CYPODA.

FORD'S THEATRE. A Washington theatre, in which President Lincoln was assassinated by Booth, April 14, 1865. The building was purchased in 1866 by the United States Government, and was used until 1887 as the Army Medical Museum, and later as the Pension and Records Bureau of the War Department. It collapsed, with the loss of many lives, on June 9, 1893.

FORDUN', JOHN OF (?-c.1384). A Scottish historical writer. He was probably a chantry priest in the Cathedral of Aberdeen. He is said to have traveled on foot through Britain and Ireland in search of materials for a chronicle of Scotland, which he had set himself to compile. This was probably between 1363 and 1384. He died probably in 1384, or a little later. Of his Chronica Gentis Scotorum he wrote five books, extending to 1353, and a part of Book VI., which deals with English history. His Gesta Annalia extend from 1353 to 1383. The work which John of Fordun left unfinished was continued by Walter Bower (q.v.). Fordun's chronicle is the chief authority for the history of Scotland prior to the fifteenth century, its value being greatest for the fourteenth, where it is contemporary. Four printed editions have been published, of which the best is that by Skene (Edinburgh, 1871-72), from the text of the Wolfenbüttel and other standard manuscripts. Bower's interpolations and additions are separated from Fordun's text. FORECAST, WEATHER. See METEOROLOGY; WEATHER BUREAU.

FORECLOSURE. The legal process whereby a mortgagor's right, or 'equity,' of redemption is cut off and the mortgagee's lien on the mortgaged lands or goods enforced. In order to put a limit on the 'equity of redemption' of the mortgagor (see EQUITY OF REDEMPTION) the remedy of foreclosure was devised by the Court of Chancery. It is available to the mortgagee at any

time after default, and is instituted by a bill of foreclosure praying that an account may be taken of the principal and interest due under the mortgage, and that the mortgagor, on failing to pay by a specified date, may forfeit his equity of redemption. If on the day fixed for payment the money be not forthcoming, the mortgagor will be declared to have forfeited his equity of redemption, and the mortgagee will be allowed to retain the estate in perpetuity. This method of enforcing the security of the mortgagee of lands is still in use in England and in many of the United States.

In a few of the American States, however, in which the mortgage has come to be regarded as a mere lien, and not as a legal estate in the mortgagee, a statutory process, known also as a foreclosure, has been adopted in lieu of the foregoing process of 'strict' foreclosure. This differs from the older method principally in the fact that it involves the satisfaction of the debt, not by a forfeiture, but by a sale of the mortgaged premises. The suit, which is also in equity, is instituted by the mortgagee as plaintiff, the mortgagor and all creditors, subsequent lienors, and other parties in interest, being made defendants. The demand is for a judgment that the defendants be foreclosed and cut off from all their interest in the mortgaged premises, and that the same be sold to satisfy the mortgage debt. The sale is made upon notice, and is at public auction, generally by the sheriff or a referee appointed by the court. After the sale the money in the hands of the referee will be applied to the payment of the mortgage, and any surplus may be claimed by subsequent mortgagees; or, if there is no other claim upon it, it will be paid to the mortgagor. Other methods of effecting a foreclosure, by legal rather than equitable process, as by a writ of entry or of ejectment directed by the mortgagee against the mortgagor, also occur in a few States. See EQUITY OF REDEMPTION; MORTGAGE; and the authorities there referred to.

FOREIGN ATTACHMENT. Α process which a few local courts of England have authority, by immemorial custom, to issue. The custom of the Mayor's Court of London is that when a foreigner defendant, of whom the court has jurisdiction, does not appear in response to a summons served on him, the plaintiff may attach his goods or debts due to him as security to enforce his appearance. Recent decisions of the House of Lords have so narrowed the custom and have pointed out so many difficulties of procedure under it that it has fallen into disuse. In

this country the attachment or garnishment of the goods or debts of non-residents is regulated by statutes in the several States. See ATTACH MENT; GARNISHMENT; and the authorities there

referred to.

customed to treat a foreign judgment as conclusive upon the parties thereto concerning the matters decided by it, unless it is shown that the judgment was obtained by fraud, or that the court granting it did not have jurisdiction.

The States of the United States are foreign to each other so far as their judicial systems are concerned. They are subject, however, to the Federal Constitution, which declares that "full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof." (Art. IV., Sec. 1.) This does not mean that a judgment obtained in one State can be enforced by an execution issued in another State. It only means that if an action is brought upon such judgment in another State, or if the judgment is pleaded there in bar to an action brought for the same cause, it shall receive the same credit that it would receive in similar circumstances in the State where it was rendered.

By common law a foreign judgment is proved by an exemplified copy under the great seal of the State, or by a true copy proved to be such by a witness who compared it with the original, or by the proper certificate of an officer duly authorized by law. Special methods of proving such judgments are provided by statute in the various States. (See DIVORCE; JUDGMENT.) Consult Freeman, Treatise on the Law of Judgments (4th ed., San Francisco, 1892).

FOREIGN LAW. The law of a foreign country. The law of a State is, under modern conditions, entirely without authority in any other country, though foreign States may, as a matter of international comity, recognize the validity of acts legally performed in other countries, and may even, under proper conditions, administer the rules and principles of foreign law in its own tribunals. As to the circumstances under which this will be done, see CONFLICT OF LAWS.

For judicial purposes the several States of the Union are foreign to each other, though the comity subsisting between them is of the strongest character and has led to an extraordinary development of the principle of the recognition of the validity of judicial acts of one State in another. See FOREIGN JUDGMENT; EXTRADITION.

The courts of a country do not take judicial notice of foreign laws, but, where they are in issue, require them to be proved as matters of fact. Foreign statutory law may be proved by duly certified copies of the statutes in question, or even by printed compilations issued by the authority of the State enacting them. Foreign customary, or unwritten, law, however, can be proved only by the sworn testimony of properly qualified experts, though it has been held in the United States that the law of a kindred system like that of England may be established for judicial purposes by the citation of reported cases and text-books of recognized authority. In general, the courts of the several United States will take judicial notice of the laws of sister States, though in some of the States proof of the law of other States is required by the citation of reported cases, and the like. The Federal courts of the United States, however, even in matters in which

done annually, but the fluctuating value of silver coins led in 1890 to a change in the law, requiring the statement to be made quarterly. Gold coins are reckoned by comparing the number of grains of fine gold which they contain with the amount of gold in the dollar. Silver coins are reckoned at the average value of the pure metal they contain during the three months prior to the determination of their value. When the values are determined by the Director of the Mint and proclaimed by the Secretary of the Treasury, they are valid in estimating the value of imports for the succeeding three months. The statement for October 1, 1902, is shown on the preceding page.

FOREIGN TRADE. See IMPORTS AND EXPORTS; FREE TRADE; TARIFF; BALANCE OF TRADE. FOREIGN WARS, MILITARY ORDER OF. An hereditary patriotic society instituted in New York City in 1894, as the Military and Naval Order of the United States, but known under its present name since 1895. The objects of the order are to honor and preserve the names and memory of those who aided in maintaining the United States Government in the five foreign wars in which it has been engaged-namely, the War of the Revolution, the War with Tripoli, the War of 1812, the Mexican War, and the War with Spain-and to collect the records and documents relating to these wars. It admits to membership Veteran Companions, consisting of commissioned officers of the army, navy, and marine corps of the United States who participated in any of these foreign wars, and also Hereditary Companions, direct lineal descendants of commissioned officers in the main line. The national organization is made up of twenty-two State commanderies. The Order has a membership of over 1600 companions, among whom are many of the leading officers of the army and navy. This Order has been officially recognized by several European monarchs.

FOREKNOWLEDGE AND FOREORDINATION. Terms of theology, signifying God's knowledge of all things before they come to pass (foreknowledge); and the eternal purpose which finds its execution in time in the government of the history of man (foreordination). By some the divine foreknowledge and the divine foreordination are thought to have no dependence upon each other, pertaining to different spheres of the divine attributes and activity; by others foreordination, as respects the acts of free creatures, is thought to depend upon the foreknowledge of what those acts will be; or, again, foreknowledge to depend upon foreordination.

There are various theories of foreknowledge. (a) It is viewed simply as one of the divine perfections, absolute because the nature of God is infinite, and thus embracing all events whatsoever, including the volitions of free beings, but capable of no explanation except that it is a fact of the nature of God. Foreknowledge is no more of a mystery upon this view than any knowledge, or any other attribute of God. (b) A kindred view adds an element of explanation from the 'ideality of time.' There is no time to God, and hence foreknowledge, in the human sense of that word, does not exist. To know the future does not essentially differ from the knowledge of the present, for all the future is present to God. (c) Foreknowledge depends upon fore

ordination. God has in some sense foreordained all things, and what He foreordains He knows, not with an immediate vision, as is supposed by the previous theories, but by the knowledge of inference and imagination. (d) The foreknowledge of God is limited by the freedom of man, inasmuch as he cannot foreknow contingent volitions which are essentially uncertain. This is a voluntary self-limitation, since God has Himself given His creatures freedom. It involves no derogation from the greatness or the dignity of God. And it is only one example of the numerous limitations which He put upon Himself in the creation, and particularly in the redemption of man. (See KENOSIS.) This theory has been proposed at various periods in history, but has always met with rejection as militating against the infinity of God. It is, however, finding increased favor at the present day in many quarters.

The proofs of God's foreknowledge are derived from the perfection of God and from the Scriptures. Even men have a certain kind and degree of foreknowledge, which is absolutely essential to them in the regulation of life. If God were nothing more than an infinite man, He must have at least the same sort of foreknowledge, and in an infinite degree. This proof is reinforced by the Scriptures, which ascribe the most various and minute foreknowledge to God. Yet neither of these proofs goes so far as they have often been supposed to go. The foreknowledge ascribed to God in the Scriptures is very vast, as it must be in the nature of the case. But the Bible is not a metaphysical book, and leaves the question still unanswered whether there may not be some events, one perhaps in a hundred thousand, which God does not foreknow. In fact, many of the representations of Scripture, though often interpreted as anthropomorphisms, are in favor of a

certain lack of knowledge of the future. Nothing in Scripture answers the question whether free volitions are in themselves subject to foreknowledge. Many are; for, though free in their essential nature, they are made in conformity with the balance of motives, and may be foreknown. This fact is the foundation of society. But, while volitions remain free, are there none that are unaccountable, against the balance of motives, and hence uncertain? That is the question of free will (q.v.); and it would be false exegesis which would rest its determination upon passages of Scripture.

Foreordination pertains to all events. So much is maintained by all theologians. Some teach that all events are embraced in foreordination in the same sense and way. This theory differs from fatalism because intended to be consistent with the freedom and responsibility of the creature; and it may be consistent if determinism (see FREE WILL) is consistent, as was maintained by Edwards and many others. Commonly a distinction has been made between foreordination and permission. The first sin of man is then said to have been permitted, and the lost are said not to have been reprobated,' but 'passed over' by electing grace; that is, left in the sinful state into which they have voluntarily brought themselves. Others, with more direct reference to free will and with a conception of the divine government as a moral government-that is, one through persuasives acting upon the will-have

said that foreordination is the determination in the first instance as to what God will Himself do. From what He does, often follows immediately what men do, as in regeneration which leads to conversion, or when He does not do what would prevent sin. Thus He often indirectly foreordains what men shall do. This indirect foreordination will ultimately extend to the entire circumference of the government of God, and it will be in such a sense that it can be said that God foreordains whatsoever cometh to pass.' The divine goyernment embraces all things ven when it is in part a government of permission.

While the proofs of the divine foreordination are derived from the Scriptures, which are full of declarations as to what God will do, the proof is also rational. The proof of the existence of God involves in it the idea of plan (teleological argument), and plan is foreordination. Conceived as the plan of the world and of the history of man, foreordination may be interpreted by the actual course of events. Whatever may be said about speculative points, it is thus indubitable that God planned to create the world, to place man in it, to provide for his salvation when he had sinned, to lead Israel through all the crises of its history toward the moment when the Redeemer could be sent, to send the Redeemer, and to conduct the Church through those courses of revival and reformation when fallen into declension, by which its present degree of success has been attained. And as all this involves the existence of a chosen people, and this, again, the choice of individuals as its members, foreordination involves election (q.v.). The grounds of this plan are to be found in the infinite wisdom and goodness of God. Whatever may be the success with which various schools have made this clear, such has been the meaning of all theologians. The most extreme schools of supralapsarians have believed that the lost were lost in consequence of their own sin, for which they were guilty, and which deserved in justice precisely the punishment they received; and they have also believed that justice must be done, and that neither wisdom nor good ness could permit it to go unsatisfied. The doctrine of election, which is but a corollary of foreordination, has often been regarded as a doctrine of favoritism. But theologians have never meant this by it. They have always founded it in the wisdom and goodness of God. They have often maintained that God elected every one who could be gained to righteousness by all the resources of His government. They have sometimes taught that more efforts were put forth for the finally lost than for some who were actually saved. The differences between the schools upon this doctrine have often been resolvable into this, that some referred a given fact to God, because it was under His government though by permission, while others ascribed it purely to man because done by him, though confessedly under a governmental permission.

The consistency of plan with free agency must be a real consistency under the divine government because it is real under human governments. A human governor can successfully determine to conquer a country under the conditions in which he is placed, and can successfully carry out his determination, as when Frederick

the Great conquered Silesia. God can do the same. The attempts of philosophy to explain this consistency do not affect its reality, whether more or less successful. Consult: Mozley, Treatment on the Augustinian Doctrine of Predestination (London, 1855); McCabe, The Foreknowl edge of God and Cognate Themes (New York, 1878). See FREE WILL.

entomologist and psychologist. He was born at FOREL, fô'rel', AUGUSTE (1848-). A Swiss Morges (Canton of Vaud); studied at the universities of Zürich and Vienna, became a lecturer at Munich in 1876, and later held the chair of psychiatry at Zürich, from which he resigned in 1897. He was connected as assistant and director with various institutions for the insane. His publications include the prize essay Les fourmis de la Suisse (1874); Der Hypnotismus (1889; 4th ed. 1902); Gehirn und Seele (1894; 6th ed. 1899); and Die psychischen Fähigkeiten der Ameisen und einiger anderen Insekten (1901).

Swiss physician and naturalist, brother of the FOREL, FRANÇOIS ALPHONSE (1841-). A preceding, born at Morges (Canton of Vaud). After medical studies he was appointed professor of anatomy and physiology in the University of Lausanne. His studies concern the glaciers and lakes of Switzerland. His contributions to the natural history of the latter have appeared in Le Léman (1892-96), and in the Handbuch der Seenkunde (1901).

FORE'LAND, NORTH AND SOUTH. Two promontories on the east coast of Kent, England. NORTH FORELAND, the Cantium of Ptolemy, forms the northeast point of the county, and is in latitude 51° 22′ N., two miles east of Margate (Map: England, H 5). Its chalk cliffs, nearly 200 feet high, projecting into the North Sea, are crowned by a lighthouse, with a fixed light, 184 feet high visible 24 miles.-SOUTH FORELAND, also composed of chalk cliffs, 16 miles south of North Foreland and 3 miles northeast of Dover, has two fixed lights, respectively 380 and 275 feet England, H 5). They indicate the proximity of above the sea, and visible about 25 miles (Map: the dangerous Goodwin Sands (q.v.), and the anchorage of the Downs (q.v.).

FORENSIC MEDICINE. See MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE.

FORESHORTENING. That view of a figure or portion of a figure which, obeying the laws of perspective, diminishes in actual extent according to the angle at which it is seen. For example, a figure looked at from below becomes condensed, as it were, in length, and in portraying such an abrupt view there would be less space demanded than if the figure stood upright on the same level as the observer. In the same sense an arm extended and pointing directly out of the picture would require less actual space on the canvas than an arm laterally extended. The representation, then, of this effect of reduced space suggesting at the same time the actual length of the object, is termed foreshortening. It is practiced more or less by all painters as occasion demands, and it is always called for in the painted ceiling where figures are represented as above one's head. Some of the chief masters of foreshortening among the Italians were Melozzo da Forli, Luca Signevelli, Michelangelo, Tintoretto, and, especially, Correggio, who, in his frescoes of