the cupola of Parma went further than had any before him. His example was followed by painters of the Baroque and Rococo period, who introduced foreshortening into their works merely for the purpose of parading their technical skill. In modern times greater care prevails, and foreshortening is practiced only with reference to the laws of perspective.

FOREST (OF. forest, Fr. forêt, It., ML. foresta, forest, from Lat. foras, foris, out of doors, fores, door, Gk. Oúpa, thyra, OChurch Slav. dviri, Lith. durys, Goth. daúrons, OHG. turi, Ger. Thür, AS. duru, Eng. door). A tract of land covered with a natural growth of trees. From the stand point of vegetation the world may be roughly divided into forest, grassland, and desert, the area of each being determined by various climatic factors. Among these climatic factors atmospheric moisture takes a prominent place, as can readily be seen in comparing a vegetation chart of the world with a rainfall chart. Other things being equal, the greater the rainfall, the richer the forest. Forests seem to be in a meas. ure independent of the seasonal distribution of rain, since they occur in regions of daily rain, of summer rain, or winter rain. Endurance through dry seasons is made possible by the great depth of tree-roots, and also by the thick and leathery leaf-texture in the case of evergreens, or by the shedding of leaves in deciduous trees. Because of the heat, more water is required by a tropical forest to meet the demands of transpiration than by a forest in the temperate zone. Another factor, perhaps of equal importance with moisture, is wind. Kihlman has shown that the presence or absence of trees in arctic regions is not a question of cold, nor even of a season's length, but of winter winds; trees grow only where they are protected from the great loss of water by transpiration induced by dry winter winds by being buried under the snow; the height of the trees thus marks the winter level of the snow. Since the winds of eastern Argentina are strong during the resting period, grassland is present, though the moisture is sufficient for a forest.

The forest formations of the world may be di vided into eight types, based chiefly on the ecological characters of the leaves. (See LEAF.) (1) The evergreen forest of the tropical regions of diurnal rainfall. This forest is especially well developed in the regions of the trade winds in oceanic climates, as of Brazil and Malaysia. This type is often called the rainy forest, and may be taken as representing the climax of the world's vegetation. Here plants grow in vast profusion and great diversity of form, and lianas, or climb ing plants, and epiphytes reach their greatest development. Simultaneous periodicity is largely wanting, so that the forest is always in active life. (2) The deciduous monsoon forest, especially characteristic of the monsoon district of India, differs from the forest first named chiefly in having simultaneous periodicity. The other characters of the rainy season are present, but in a less complete degree. (3) The evergreen forest of the temperate zone is essentially an extension of the tropical evergreen forest into the cooler regions, especially of the Southern Hemisphere. It is peculiar to pronounced oceanic climates with markedly uniform temperature and moisture. (4) The deciduous forest of the north temperate zone is the typical forest formation of

the eastern United States. The forests of beech, maple, chestnut, oak, etc., are too familiar to need description. The radical difference between the forests of the same latitudes in the Northern and Southern hemispheres is doubtless associated with the continental climates of the one and the oceanic climates of the other. (5) The deciduous savanna forest of the tropical and warm temperate regions is transitional between forest and grassland (q.v.), having a park-like aspect, which is due to scattered trees in a district where grasses form the chief undergrowth. Such a forest commonly has a moderate rainfall. (6) The thorny or scrubby forest of tropical and warm temperate regions where the rainfall is slight is transitional between forest and thicket (q.v.). forest of temperate regions where the rainfall occurs in winter, is finely shown in the Mediterranean region; coarse and leathery but large evergreen leaves, like those of the holly, laurel, oleander, and the evergreen oaks, may be taken as typical of such regions. (8) The conifer forests, the pines and firs with their leathery, needle-shaped evergreen leaves, form great forests in the colder regions of the temperate zones, especially of the Northern Hemisphere.

(7) The

The forests heretofore discussed are all climatic and widespread. Edaphic (q.v.) or local forests also occur. Indeed, in most of the regions where the above climatic types are found, there are localities in which other forest combinations are present. For example, in a swamp in the deciduous zone of the northern United States there may be found tamarack, spruce, and white cedar. Close observation in such a place for many years would doubtless show the gradual dying out of these trees and their replacement by the ordinary members of the deciduous forest. On a hill there may often be found a pine-plant society, but this is not a permanent condition. Pines are often likely to be followed in a natural sequence by oaks, and they in turn by maples and beeches. These changeable plant societies may be called edaphic, while the ultimate forest toward which all are tending may be called the climatic formation. Viewed in this light the eight great forest types outlined above are forest formations.

FORESTALLING. The buying of provisions with a view to enhancing the price thereof in open market. This was a common-law offense, and was the subject of early and repeated legislation. It was described by statute of 5 and 6 Edw. VI., ch. 14, as the buying or contracting for any merchandise or victual coming in the way to market; or dissuading persons from bringing their goods or provisions there; or persuading them to enhance the price when there. It was analogous to engrossing (q.v.) and regrating (q.v.). Modern conditions of trade have rendered these practices legitimate and the laws intended to regulate them obsolete; while at the same time the abuses referred to have, under the name of 'corners' and monopolies, become more flagrant and oppressive. The laws against forestalling, etc., were formally repealed in England by statute 7 and 8 Vict., ch. 24. In the United States they have remained unenforced. Consult the authorities referred to under CRIMINAL LAW.

FOREST CANTONS, THE FOUR. The four cantons of Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden, and Lucerne, in Switzerland.

FOR ESTER, FRANK. Henry William Herbert (q.v.). FORESTERS, ANCIENT ORDER OF. A fraternal organization founded in 1745 when a Court of Foresters was established at Knaresborough Castle, in Yorkshire, England. The Order has existed continuously since then, and was introduced into the United States in 1832, by the establishment of Court Good Speed, 201, in Philadelphia. The growth of the Order was slow until 1864, when Court Brooklyn, 4421, was organized. In 1902 the courts numbered approximately 9000, with a total membership of nearly 1,000,000. The Order is one of the largest beneficiary societies in existence, with courts in 36 countries, a reserve fund of $36,000,000, and an income of $6,000,000. Funds are raised by fixed dues, and more than $5,000,000 annually are distributed in benefits.

FORESTERS, INDEPENDENT ORDER OF. A fraternal and benevolent society founded at Newark, N. J., in 1874, and reorganized in 1881. The Order is general throughout the United States and Canada, and has branches in Great Britain, Norway, France, India, and Australia.

Its government is vested in a Supreme Court, with delegates from all the countries represented. High Courts, corresponding to the Grand Lodges of other societies, have supervision of the Order in various States and countries. Of these High Courts there were, in 1902, 20 in the United States, 8 in the British Isles, and one in Norway. The local bodies are called courts. The Order has a membership of some 200,000, has paid more than $11,000,000 in benefits since its organization, and has a surplus fund of over $5,600,000.

FORESTERS OF AMERICA. A benevolent

and fraternal organization known under its present title since September, 1895. Originally the Order was part of the Ancient Order of Foresters, founded in England in 1745, and introduced in

the United States in 1832. In 1889, however, the American Order freed itself from the jurisdic

tion of the High Court in England, and became a separate organization. It had, in 1902, some 1600 courts, or local branches, and a total membership of over 200,000. Its annual payments for benefits amount to $1,000,000.

FOREST FLY. The British name of a small, widely distributed fly (Hippobosca equina), rep resenting that aberrant division of Diptera styled Eproboscidea (see FLY) and the family Hippoboscida. These minute insects are flea-like in appearance and habits, dwelling altogether as parasites among the hairs of animals and feathers of birds, and are sometimes called 'birdticks.' A common species on large birds in America is Olfersia Americana. Species of another genus, Lipoptera, have wings when young and live upon birds, but after a time they migrate to some mammal, and there, having no further use for their wings, wrench or bite them off. Another genus, Melophagus, includes the wingless sheepticks; a whole family, the spider-like bat-ticks (Nycteribiida), inhabit the fur of bats alone; and another includes the bee-louse (Braulida). All obtain their living by piercing the skin and sucking the blood with an extensile tube thrust

temists.

FORESTI, fô-rés'tê, ELEUTARIO FELICE (17931858). An Italian patriot and scholar. He was born at Conselice; graduated at the University of Bologna, practiced law at Ferrara, and in 1816 was made prætor at Crespino. In 1819 he was arrested as one of the Carbonari, and was kept in prison until 1836, when he came to the United States. He was for many years professor of Italian in Columbia College, and in 1858 he was appointed United States consul at Genoa. He published an edition of Ollendorff's Italian grammar (1846), and Crestomazia italiana (1846).

FOREST LAWS (in England). Laws for the government of the forests in the King's possession. Such forests were vast tracts of country, containing not only woodland, but pastures and dividuals than the King. Smaller tracts of woodeven villages, which might belong to other inland were called chases, or, if inclosed, parks, and might be included in a royal forest. The forests varied in number and extent at different times and were situated in different parts of the kingdom. Among the best known were New Forest, in Hampshire, Windsor Forest, and Epping Forest.

Most of them, indeed, dated from the AngloSaxon period, and having their origin in the uninclosed woodlands which had been national property, became royal demesne in the eleventh century. But all the Norman and early Plantaincrease the forest area by afforestment, a sumgenet kings attempted, with varying success, to mary proceeding, which consisted in simply proclaiming the desired tract a forest, after it had been inclosed with metes and bounds by royal commission. Sometimes the people were allowed to remain, but subject to the strict forest law; often they were ruthlessly driven away. The increase of the forest area was not only attempted by such high-handed monarchs as William I. and his sons. Until the fourteenth century it was a recurring source of complaint against the kings. Such wise kings as Henry II. and Edward I. were guilty of the same practice, and it was not until 1301 that the latter finally yielded to the wishes of his people, and permanently put an end to afforestment by force. When Henry VIII. created Hampton Court Forest, he was obliged to pay the freeholders for the lands of which he deprived them, and even Charles I. is said to have followed a like course when he created

Richmond Park.

We have no means of determining the state of the law at the time of the Conquest. A series of enactments attributed to Canute is of such uncertain authority as to have been rejected by Coke in 1548, and Dr. Liebermann has recently shown that it is a forgery of about 1184. All that we know of his legislation on this subject is

that he permitted every man to hunt in his own wood, but forbade trespassing in the King's forest. The terrible severities of the Norman period are usually said to have been introduced under Henry I., but in his charter of liberties Henry professes merely to retain the forests as his father had held them. His law claimed supreme jurisdiction over private forests as well as over his own, and prescribed terrible penalties for the killing of game, among which were death, blinding, and emasculation. The Assize of the Forest, issued by Henry II. in 1184, retains these punish ments, but mitigates others and prescribes the limits of the jurisdiction of forest courts. The extreme rigor with which this otherwise just King enforced the forest law gave cause for great complaint. In the Great Charter John renounced his afforestments, promised reform of all bad customs, and excused from attendance on the forest courts those not living in the forest. The Charter of the Forests, issued by the Earl Marshal for Henry III. in 1217, was a still more liberal document, greatly diminishing the punishments, the severest of which is now imprisonment for a year and a day. Besides confirming the provisions of Magna Charta, it permits freemen to exercise many other rights, such as those to mills, fish-ponds, marl-pits, arable land, falcons, etc., on their own land, within the forest. Renewed by Edward I., and supplemented by another ordinance in 1306, it remained the basis of the forest laws of the kingdom.

In general, the inhabitants of the forest folds were subject to the royal rights of forestry. These were both of vert, that is, to every kind of tree and brush in the forest, and venison, that is to say, to every wild beast of the forest. They were not allowed to hunt or cut wood or brush on their own land without license of the royal official. They, indeed, retained, some rights of pasture for commonable beasts (excluding sheep, goats, geese, and swine), but they might not use as much as would deprive the King's beasts of food.

The officers of the forest were numerous and important. The master forester seems to have been independent even of the justiciar. There were two justices in eyre, one for this side of Trent and the other for beyond. The verderers were chosen in pursuance of royal writ by the freeholders of the forest from their own number to maintain the law. Besides the foresters, who were freemen sworn to preserve vert and venison in their respective bailiwicks, there were other minor

officials.

The forest courts were three in number, running parallel with the ordinary courts of justice. There was the woodmote, or court of attach ments, held before the verderers every forty days. It tried minor trespasses only, and could not convict. The swanmote was held three times a year by the same officials, all freeholders of the forest being bound to attend. Presentments were made by a jury which tried and convicted, but did not pass judgment. This was reserved for the justices in eyre, who every third year held the court of justice seat, a supreme court of civil and criminal jurisdiction over all offenses committed in a forest, whether against the forest law or not.

The last important general forest legislation was passed by the Long Parliament in 1640.

Charles I. had been exacting fines for alleged encroachments on his forests, and Parliament replied with an act for the 'certainty of forests,' exempting from prosecution any alleged encroachments which were considered valid in the second year of James I. Since that act the laws of the forest have practically ceased. The Crown still retains ancient forestal rights over private lands in Dean Forest and in New Forest, but such rights survive as curious legal anomalies. During Queen Victoria's reign three of the royal forests, viz. Hainault, Whittlewood, and Wichwood, were disafforested by act of Parliament. It would be better, however, if the remainder, and particularly such as are near large cities, could be held as national parks and recreation grounds. This has recently been done in the case of Epping Forest near London, and seems to be the probable destiny of others as well.

The royal forests of Scotland were nearly as numerous as those of England, and their area was larger in proportion to that of the country. As in England, there was a special code for them. Indeed, this code is so much like the English that it seems to have been derived from it. The penalties, however, are not so severe, nor did afforestation play such a prominent part in the Scotch constitutional struggle as in the English. The best edition of the Scotch forest code is in the Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1844).

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Most of the laws of the forest are given in convenient form by Stubbs, Select Charters (Oxford, 1895), as cited above; they are published in full in the Statutes of the Realm, Record Commission, vol. i. (1810); Coke's. Fourth Institute of the Laws of England (London, 1548) is the earliest legal authority, and the most complete is Manwood's Treatise of the Laws of the Forests (London, 1598). For good brief modern descriptions, consult: Stubbs, Constitutional History, i. (Oxford, 1891); and "Forest Laws," in the Encyclopædia of the Laws of England, ed. by Ranton (London, 1895-98).

FOREST OAK. A name sometimes given in commerce to the timber of Casuarina torulosa, and other species of the same genus, all Australian trees. In Queensland the wood is considered as one of the most valuable for fuel, and is also

split into shingles. It is light yellowish-brown and prettily marked with short red veins. It is exported for use in cabinet-work, for which purpose it is employed as veneer.

FOREST PRESERVATION. See FORESTRY; LUMBER INDUSTRY.

FORESTRY (from ML. foresteria, forestaria, forestage, from foresta, forest). The economic management of trees as communities. It is distinct from arboriculture, which is more strictly concerned with the individual tree. Forestry looks to the conservation and utilization of the various forest products in order that the greatest returns may be obtained. It may apply to the planting of a new forest or the preservation of an old one, the reforestation of a mountain-side, the prevention of ruthless forest destruction, or the utilization of the forest products as a crop. The uses of a forest are to supply timber, fuel, etc.; to offer protection against winds; to conserve moisture, by storing up water or at least by checking its loss by seepage and evaporation;