in 1900 counted 127 instructors (including docents) and 1330 students. Among the principal libraries are that of the university, the city library (in the Academy of Fine Arts), that in the Palazzo Rosso, the Missioni Urbane, and the Franconia. Genoa has two royal gymnasia, two royal lyceums, a theological seminary, a royal school of shipbuilding, a commercial school of university rank, five technical schools, three royal normal schools, two technical evening schools, a school of technical design, and the industrial school Duchessa Galliera. Genoa is not important in the realms of literature, music, and the theatre.

Among the splendidly equipped institutions of charity, to which the city grants over $100,000 a year, are the Pammatone Hospital, with beds for 700, founded in 1420 by Bartolommeo Bosco; the poor-house, founded in 1655, and enlarged in 1835, with accommodation for 1400; the hospital for the incurable; the Sant' Andrea Hospital; the asylum for the deaf and dumb; the orphan asylum, with accommodation for 600 girls; the insane asylum; the asylum for the blind; the Protestant Hospital; and the children's hospital. Of the seven principal theatres the most important-one of the largest in Italy-is the Teatro Carlo Felice, built in 1828, with 3000 seats. There are excellent electric-lighting, gas, telephone, water, and sewerage systems, and the death-rate has declined appreciably during the past generation. There is a paid fire department, with a per capita annual expenditure of over ten cents. The city government has a high reputation for efficiency. The administration consists of sixty municipal councilors elected by the citizens, forty lira of taxes entitling a citizen to a vote, and to nomination as a councilor. A giunta or administrative committee of twelve members is elected from among themselves by the council, and from this administrative committee the King appoints the syndic or mayor. Genoa is the seat of an archbishop.

There is regular communication by steamship with the principal Mediterranean ports; with Germany and the British Isles; with New York (weekly); and with Asia and Australia. The headquarters of the Navigazione Generale Italiana, and of other steamship companies, are here. As a commercial centre Genoa is advancing rapidly, with the prospect of becoming before long the first port on the Mediterranean. The connections by rail with the Saint Gothard Tunnel, 200 miles north, render it the principal port on the Mediterranean for Switzerland and Germany. The East railway station in the city is connected with the main or West station by a subway a mile and a half long, which has a branch diverging to the harbor station. The harbor station is connected with the various docks by rail.

In 1900 the imports amounted to 3,075,790 tons (metric), and were valued at 519,679,519 lira (about $100,000,000); the exports amounted to 232.300 tons, valued at 240,106,592 lira (about $47,000,000). The principal article imported is coal from England; in 1900, 1,855,857 tons, which is more English coal than is imported by any other port in the world. In 1891 the value of the imports was about $78.000.000, of the exports about $18.000.000; in 1877 the imports were valued at $58.000.000, exports at about $9,500.000. The weight of the goods that passed through Genoa in bond in 1900 was 367,534 tons;

their value 155,564,373 lira (about $30,000,000). The number of vessels entering and clearing in 1900 was 13,602 (7292 steamships), with registered tonnage of 9,727,545. In nationality, 9770 were Italian, 1398 English, 453 German, 426 French. The number of vessels entering and clearing in 1891 was 12,256, with registered tonnage of only 6,421,637. Of these only 5973 were steamships. In the seventies the number of vessels entering and clearing averaged only 5000, with tonnage of about 2,000,000. In point of tonnage Genoa is by far the first of Italian cities, though in 1900 it was still surpassed by Naples in number of vessels entering and clearing. The principal imports besides coal are grain (in 1900 about $16,000,000), cotton (about $16,000,000), silk (about $7,000,000); the principal exports are silk goods (in 1900 about $15,000,000), cotton goods (about $8,000,000), spirits, wine and oil (about $4,000,000). American cottonseed oil is mixed here in large quantities with olive oil, and exported. The industrial interests are also important.

The manufactures are velvet and silk fabrics, woolen goods, cotton goods, ribbons, damask, embroidery, artificial flowers, hats, paper, leather and leather goods, furniture, objects in gold, silver, ivory, marble, alabaster, and coral, essences, soap, preserved fruits, chocolate, macaroni, and vermicelli. San Pier d'Arena (q.v.), the most important suburb of Genoa, is a manufacturing centre. Population, in 1881, 179,515; in 1901, 234,710.

In ancient, as well as in mediæval times, Genoa was an important seaport. It was conquered by the Romans in B.C. 222 and made part of Gallia Cisalpina. At the time of Augustus Genoa was, according to Strabo, "a flourishing town and the chief emporium of the Ligurians." During the Dark Ages Genoa, with different barbarian overlords, maintained in greater part its municipal organization. In 936 it was plundered by the Saracens, against whom it had been a bulwark of defense for the whole of Liguria. Then Genoa and Pisa formed an alliance to expel the Saracens from the strongholds of Corsica and Sardinia. This being effected, the Genoese obtained, by Papal arbitration, the grant of Corsica, while Sardinia was assigned to the Pisans. For the next two centuries the two cities were almost continually at war, until in 1284 in the naval battle of Meloria the Genoese broke the power of Pisa. Meanwhile the Genoese had vigorously cooperated in the Crusades, and as material reward, had obtained important commercial privileges in the Holy Land. The city had also established settlements at Constantinople, in the Crimea, in Syria, Cyprus, Tunis, and Majorca, and rose to such a height of maritime power throughout the Mediterranean that the natural sequence was a 140-year struggle with Venice, which terminated in the Peace of Turin (1381), decidedly disad vantageous to Genoa.

During both the Pisan and the Venetian wars, internal dissensions had weakened the city and occasioned changes in the form of government. In 1190 the consuls were superseded by a podestà (q.v.), an office which lasted till 1270, when two of the great Guelph leaders of the State resolved to subvert the popular authorities, and, under the title of 'captains of liberty,' assumed irresponsible authority, which for twenty-one years they contrived to retain. During their sway civil feuds

continued to rage. Various other modifications of the government preceded the election of the first Genoese Doge in 1339. This supreme magisterial office, which was held for life, and from which nobles were excluded, continued for two centuries. The ambitious contentions of four leading democratic families-viz. the Adorni, the Fregosi, the Guarci, and the Montaldi-succeeding those of the patrician houses of Doria, Spinola, Grimaldi, and Fieschi, engendered such disastrous civil strife under the early doges that, in 1396, the citizens invoked the protection of the French King Charles VI., and finally submitted to the rule of the Visconti (q.v.), the lords of Milan, in 1464. After the invasion of Louis XII., in 1499, Genoa was subject to the French till 1528, when the genius and resolution of a great citizen, Andrea Doria (q.v.), freed his country from foreign invaders, and restored to Genoa republican institutions. But the power of Genoa was on the wane. The Turks seized her Oriental possessions, the French bombarded the city in 1684, and the Imperial troops occupied it for a brief time in 1746. In 1736 the Corsicans, who had for seven years been in rebellion, chose a Westphalian nobleman named Neuhof (q.v.) King. He was soon expelled by the Genoese with the aid of the French, who in 1768 bought the island. During the French Revolution, when the French swept over Italy, Genoa sought to remain neutral, but, being threatened by the English under Nelson, finally joined France, and made a money contribution of 2,000,000 francs. Then a democratic uprising favored by Napoleon put an end to the sway of the nobility. In 1797 a democratic constitution was adopted, and the Ligurian Republic established. In 1800 the French general Masséna was besieged in Genoa by the Austrians and English and forced to capitulate. In 1805 Napoleon annexed the Ligurian Republic to the French Empire. After the fall of Napoleon, Genoa was, against her will, awarded by the Congress of Vienna to the Kingdom of Sardinia (q.v.). Consult Malleson, Studies from Genoese History (London, 1875).

as their

GENOA, GULF of. The portion of the Mediterranean, near the Italian city of Genoa, which is partially inclosed by the coast that winds from Spezia west to Oneglia (Map: Italy, C 3). GENOUDE, zhâ'nood', ANTOINE EUGÈNE (1792-1849). A French publicist, born at Montélimar (Drôme). At first a student of eighteenthcentury philosophy, he became an ardent Catholic, and threw himself into all the controversies of the period, hailing the return of the Bourbons with enthusiasm. He was, with Lamennais, the founder of Le Défenseur (1820), which was replaced by L'Etoile (1821), the Government organ, and revived the old Gazette de France (1825). After the Revolution of July (1830) he attacked the new party with much vigor. In 1835, the year following the death of his wife, he

took orders. His active career ended in 1848. His works include: Voyage dans la Vendée et dans le midi de la France (1820); La raison du christianisme (1834-35); and Les pères de l'église des trois premiers siècles (1837-43).

GENOUILLÈRE, zhâ'noo'yar' (Fr. kneepiece). A term in fortification (q.v.), denoting that part of the interior slope of the parapet which serves as a cover for the lower part of a gun-carriage. The term itself is derived from one

of the articulated pieces of metal used in suits of armor. In the thirteenth century it was a knee-piece of beaten metal (iron) held in place by a leather bandage or strap; but subsequent improvements made it much more pliable, and added (in the fourteenth century) large rings which projected rearward on each side of the knee-joint.

GENOVESI, jā'nô-va'sê, ANTONIO (1712-69). An Italian writer on philosophy and political economy. At an early age he was destined by his father for the Church, and began the study of theology in a monastery. He took orders and was appointed to the chair of rhetoric in the theological seminary of Salerno. He now read with eagerness the works of the chief modern philosophers, and was particularly attracted by Locke. Dissatisfied with ecclesiastical life, Genovesi resigned his post at Salerno, and proceeded to Rome, where he undertook the study of law, and qualified as an advocate. The details of legal practice, however, proved as distasteful as theology, and for some years he gave himself up entirely to the study of philosophy, attending most of the distinguished lectures at the university at Naples. At this place, after having obtained the appointment of professor extraordinary of philosophy, he opened a seminary or private college for students. His reputation as a teacher was increased by the publication in 1743 of the first volume of his Elements of Metaphysics and in 1741 of his Logic. Both works are imbued with the spirit and principles of the Empirical School of philosophy. On account of the accusation of infidelity and heresy excited by his discussions of metaphysical principles, he had some difficulty in obtaining the professorship of moral philosophy, and failed in his effort to be appointed to the chair of theology. He published a continuation of his Elements of Metaphysics; but with every new volume he experienced fresh opposition from the partisans of scholastic routine. In spite of this Genovesi obtained the approbation of Pope Benedict XIV., of several cardinals, and of most of the learned men of Italy. Among them was Intieri, a Florentine, who founded, at his own expense, in the university at Naples, the first Italian chair of political economy, under three conditions, namely: that the lectures should be in Italian, that Genovesi should be the first professor, and that, after his death, no ecclesiastic should succeed him. He was one of the first in Italy who dared to write upon philosophy in the common language of the country. His Opere scelte were published in 4 vols. (Milan, 1835).

GENRE, zhäN'r' (Fr., sort) PAINTING. A term used in art to denote that class of subjects which portray the intimate and every-day life of any people. This draws the line sharply painting, which depicts more or less great mobetween this class of subjects and historical ments of national life. This class of painting is characteristic of the Dutch school by which it was first largely practiced. Its chief masters in that school were Terburg, Brower, Ostade, Rembrandt, the younger Teniers, Metzu, Gerard Dow, Frans Hals, and others. Their subjects were the familiar life of the family; street scenes and sports; festivals and picnics, tavern scenes-all that goes to make up the occupations of a people. These might be comic, serious, or pathetic, but

genre painting, strictly speaking, always includes as a dominant note the human element. Pictures of this class are usually of small dimensions, but they are always valuable and interesting records of contemporary life. In British art Wilkie and Hogarth are prominent examples of genre painters. Hogarth was probably the greatest master in English genre painting and his pictures portraying the weaknesses and follies of the life of his time are powerful parables, and full of artistic strength. Genre work was dene in Spain by Velazquez and Murillo, and in France, during the eighteenth century, by Watteau, Greuze, and others. There was a general revival of this kind of subject during the nineteenth century, and among the many painters of all nations who have practiced it we need only mention such names as Meissonier in France, Fortuny in Spain, Kraus, Defregger, and Grützner in Germany. See DEFREGGER; GRÜTZNER; MEISSONIER.

GENS (Lat., race). A word sometimes used by the Romans to designate a whole community, the members of which were not necessarily connected by any known ties of blood, though some such connection was probably always taken for granted. In this sense we hear of the gens Latinorum, Campanorum, etc. But it had a far more definite meaning than this in the constitutional law of Rome. According to Scævola, the pontifex, those alone belonged to the same gens, or were 'gentiles,' who satisfied the four following conditions: (1) Who bore the same name; (2) who were born of freemen; (3) who had no slave among their ancestors; and (4) who had suffered no capitis diminutio (reduction from a superior to an inferior condition). In the identity of name, some sort of approach to a common origin seems to be implied. The gens thus consisted of many families, but all these families were supposed to be more or less nearly allied by blood.

The Roman form of organization is found among all races and in every part of the world, and is now known generically, by the common consent of ethnologists, as the clan (q.v.), although in literature and in history gens is the familiar term. The clan is a body of kindred wider than a family or household, and narrower than a tribe (q.v.), and recognizing relationship, together with the right to names and to property, in one line of descent only, through the mother, but not through the father, or through the father, but not through the mother. The primitive clan, found in savagery and the lower stages of barbarism, is a totemic group (see TOTEMISM), or totem kin.' Its members hold sacred some species or variety of plant or animal, regarded as female in sex, and claim to be descended from it. Such are in many cases the clans of the Australian aborigines and of the North American Indians. Clans thus tracing descent through the mother are called matronymic; while the clans found in a higher stage of social evolution, as among the Arabs, the Greeks, and Romans, and the Slavs, Celts, and Teutons at the dawn of European history, in which descent is reckoned through fathers, are called patronymic. The Greek yévos, and its equivalent form the Roman gens, were highly developed patronymic clans. The discovery that the totemic organization of the North American Indians was in all essentials like

the Roman gens, except in being matronymic, was made by Lewis H. Morgan. From this discovery to that of the practical universality of the clan as the characteristic social form of tribal communities was but a step, and the wider generalization was offered by Morgan in his Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity. The functions of this clan are economic, religious, and juristic. It usually holds common property, and a burialplace. It regulates marriages; in the primitive clan the clansman may not marry his own clanswoman. This restriction was breaking down in the Roman gens at the beginning of the authentic historic period. All clansmen were bound to defend one another, and to redress one another's injuries. In Morgan's writings the word gens is everywhere used for clan, and his use of gentile to distinguish tribal from civil society has been usually followed.

GENSAN, gĕn'sän'. See Won-San.

GEN'SERIC (-477). King of the Vandals. led the Vandals into Spain. After the death of He was an illegitimate son of Godigisdus, who his brother Gonderic, Genseric became sole ruler. tion of Boniface, Count of Africa, the viceroy In the year 429 he invaded Africa, on the invitaof Valentinian III., Emperor of the West, who had been goaded on to rebellion through the machinations of his rival Aëtius. Genseric's army at first amounted to 50,000 warriors. As they swept through Mauritania, the Kabyle mountaineers and the Donatist heretics swelled the horde, and more than equaled their associates in acts of cruelty and bloodthirstiness. The friends of Boniface, astonished that the hero who alone had maintained the cause of the Emperor and his mother Placidia during their exile and distress should have been guilty of such a crime, attempted, with ultimate success, to bring about an interview between the Count of Africa and an agent of the Empress. The army he twice defeated by Genseric, and he was compelled hurriedly collected to oppose the Vandals was to retire to Italy, where he was soon afterwards slain by Aëtius. All Africa west of Carthage fell into the hands of Genseric, who shortly after seized that city itself, and made it, A.D. 439, the capital of his new dominions. He also took possession of part of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. In the year 451 he encouraged Attila to undertake his great expedition against Gaul. Tradition states that, at the request of Eudoxia, the widow of Valentinian, who was eager for revenge upon her husband's murderer, Maximus, Genseric in the year 455 marched against Rome, which he took, and abandoned to his soldiers for fourteen days. On leaving the city he carried with him the Empress and her two daughters, one of whom became the wife of his son Huneric. The Empire twice endeavored to avenge the indignities it had suffered, but without success. First the Western Emperor, Majorian, fitted out a fleet against the Vandals in 457, which was destroyed by Genseric in the bay of Carthagena; second, the Eastern Emperor, Leo, sent an expedition under the command of Heraclius and others in 468, which was also destroyed off the city of Bona. Genseric died in 477, in the possession of all his conquests, leaving behind him the reputation of being the greatest of the Vandal kings. He seems to have regarded himself as a 'scourge of God.' In creed Genseric was a fierce Arian, and in.

genera and more than 700 species. Species of this order are found in nearly every part of the globe, and in all sorts of situations. Some are arctic and alpine plants, some are saprophytes, some grow in dry situations, others in marshes, while the species of one genus are aquatic in habit. The flowers of many are of great beauty both as to color and form, and some are cultivated as ornamentals. Medicinal properties are attributed to some. The genera of this order have been variously grouped dependent upon the characters used, one of the latest classifications being based upon pollen characters. The chief genera are: Gentiana, Erythræa, Chlora, Swertia, Menyanthes, Limnanthemum, and Voyria. BUCKBEAN; GENTIAN; CENTAURY.

See

GENTILE DA FABRIANO, jěn-ti là dả fä'brẻ-ä'no (c.1360-c.1428). An Italian painter, called Fabriano from his birthplace (Fabriano, in the March of Ancona). He belongs to the early Umbrian and Sienese schools, was the pupil of Allegretto Nuzi, and has also been called the pupil of Fra Angelico, but this is not probable. He painted in Brescia, Siena, but chiefly in Florence (142125), and then went to Orvieto. In 1426 he executed paintings for Pope Martin V. in the Church of San Giovanni in Rome, and other works, all of which have been destroyed. His extant pictures include a "Coronation of the Virgin," portions of which are at the Brera in Milan; and the centre panel at Fabriano, the "Adoration of the Magi," his masterpiece, most of which is in the Accademia di Belle Arti at Florence, the remainder, a "Presentation," in the Louvre, Paris. There are also a "Holy Family" in the Louvre; some scenes from the life of Christ in the Berlin Museum; and a "Crucifixion" in San Agostino de Bari. His beautifully studied pictures sparkle with gold and colors like jewels. His figures are always animated and his faces smiling, wherever they appear. He belongs to the transition period of the fifteenth century. Although he clung to primitive methods of painting, in technical knowledge he went beyond the artists of his time. Jacopo Bellini was the pupil of Fabriano, and worked with him in Florence.

GENTILES (Lat. gentilis, belonging to a clan, or family, from gens, tribe, family). A term of ten used in the Bible, especially in the New Testament, to designate the non-Israelitic peoples. It represents the Hebrew goyim (pl. of goi), 'nations.' The peculiar significance of the term Gentile in Jewish and early Christian usage simply marks the crystallization of a long previous process of doctrinal development.

Prior to the conquest of Canaan, Israel's life was of a strictly tribal character, and in accordance with the common Semitic ideas the tribes constituting Israel probably felt that they differed from other tribes or peoples only in the fact that they worshiped their God, Yahweh, while the other peoples worshiped their particular deities. Hence in the old stories of the patriarchal age there is manifest no special hostility or attitude of superiority toward the surrounding nations.

The occupancy of Canaan and the development of a vigorous Hebrew nationality after a long struggle with the old inhabitants and with outside nations led to a new and more positive national consciousness. Israel was now a people (Heb. 'am), Yahweh's people, one of the goyim

of the earth, ready to assert its peculiar rights and privileges.

The historical narrative pointed out how Israel was specially called of Yahweh to be His own peculiar people, and the legislation defined the legal status of foreigners residing in the borders of Israel. The early Hebrew law distinguished two classes of such non-Israelites-the ger, i.c. sojourner, a permanent resident and in sympathy with Israel's life, and the car or nokri, i.e. the stranger or foreigner, who was not looked upon so favorably. As to the ger, the law required of him obedience to the Sabbath law, and provided that he was not to be vexed or oppressed. He could also present an offering to the priests, which was not allowed to the nokri (Lev. xxii. 25).

In the prophetic teaching (c.750 B.C. to the Exile) the contrast between Israel and the nations (goyim) is most forcibly expressed. Israel's place is unique, and while Yahweh's gracious attitude toward other nations is fully asserted, still it is through Israel that such blessings are to come to them. With this advocacy of Israel's peculiarly exalted position the prophets also insisted on the open-hearted favorable treatment of the sojourners in Israel required by the older laws.

The legislation in Deuteronomy, influenced by prophetic thought and the teachings of Ezekiel, and the later priestly legislation of the Pentateuch reveal the growth of the tendency to draw the lines more rigidly between the Israelites and the foreigners. As a result we have such teachings as these: The ger and nokri may eat that which dies of itself (Deut. xiv. 21); the nokri is not entitled to the privilege of the year of release (xv. 3); no nokri has a right to the throne of Israel (xvii. 15); one may lend on interest to the nokri (xxiii. 20). Furthermore, not only could no nokri make an offering, but he also could not enter the sanctuary (Ezek. xliv. 7, 9), nor eat of the Passover (Ex. xii. 43). If a ger desired to eat of the Passover, he must be circumcised, and thus become legally a full Israelite (Ex. xii. 48).

The

Such principles as these, which were the fundamental law of the Jewish communities of exilic and post-exilic time, show how at last the conviction became deeply rooted and clearly expressed that Israel was, theoretically, a holy entity, a people by itself, altogether unique among the peoples of the earth. The other peoples, the goyim, were per se profane. Israelite could not meet them as equals. The work of Ezra and Nehemiah was of great influ ence in this respect. Henceforth the attitude toward the non-Israelite manifested two marked phases. On the one hand was the insistence on the idea of separation, of exclusiveness, under all circumstances, so that the Jew, not only in Palestine, but also in the Dispersion, scattered among the Gentiles, was ever a Jew, holding himself aloof from intimate familiar intercourse with the non-Israelite, with a lofty contempt for Gentile ideas and customs. These feelings were the more intensified by the bitter struggles of the Maccabean times, and were shared by the great majority of Jews, even of the humble classes, in New Testament times (cf. Acts x. 28). Prac tically, violations of these principles were constantly occurring. There were certain limits,.