wind wear the rock away. The rock waste thus produced is transported, always downward, by the winds, streams, glaciers, and its own weight, most of it having the sea bottom as its ultimate destination. On the way, however, some of it is deposited, as in dunes, moraines, and deltas, and thus the agencies of destruction are also constructive agents. Thus there is a constant movement downward, from the land to the sea. Unless this is offset by elevation movements in the crust of the land, it results eventually in the reduction of the land to a low plain. Furthermore, if the limits of sea and land remain constant, there is a vast accumulation of sediment on the sea bottom, and a corresponding thinning of the solid crust over the land. See PHYSIOGRAPHY; GEOLOGY.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF LIFE. The distribution of plants and animals is determined by a number of factors, which are more or less interdependent. The chief of these are the physical characteristics, the climate, topography, etc., of the region, with which should be coupled the characteristics of plant and animal life. Closely related to these are the changes in climate, topography, etc., and the adaptability of various species. Other factors are the means of dispersal of forms of life, and the results of the competitive struggle for existence among them. man's interference with the adjustment of life conditions which prevailed upon his advent.

Under the last should be included the results of

The play of the above agencies has resulted in a somewhat complex distribution, some of whose features are not yet easy to explain. In some cases widely separated regions have fauna and flora remarkably similar, like the British Isles and those of Northern Japan. The physical conditions are quite similar, but the areas are separated by almost the semi-circumference of the globe. On the other hand, adjacent regions, with similar physical conditions, often differ widely in fauna and flora, as in the case of Australia and New Zealand. Regions with very different fauna and flora are, in some cases, connected by transition zones, through which the change is made gradually, while in other cases the change is a sudden and violent one. Certain well-marked types occur in scattered localities, in various parts of the earth, without apparent

connection one with another.

Although much study has been devoted to the subject, no satisfactory classification of the earth's surface with respect to its life has yet

been evolved.

In polar regions, such as the northern parts of North America, Europe, and Asia, the soil is permanently frozen below, thawing only at the surface in summer, thus forming the well-known tundra, whose chief vegetation is reindeer-moss, among which bloom in summer many brightcolored flowers. This tundra passes in less cold regions into moors and heaths.

Desert regions are characterized by a scanty growth of yucca, and many species of thorny shrubs; where desert conditions are less intense, various species of Artemisia abound. The great plains of North America, the pampas of Argentina, and the Siberian steppes, which may be characterized as sub-humid regions, are clothed with grasses, and these pass, by insensible de grees, through prairie regions, of mingled grasses and woods, to forested regions. These differ

widely in character in different parts of the earth. In the colder regions coniferous forests prevail; in the more temperate regions coniferæ and broad-leaved trees are mingled, while the forests of tropical regions are commonly of the latter class, with dense undergrowth. The greatest and densest forests are, as a rule, found in regions of heaviest rainfall. Thus the broader distinctions in the character of the vegetation are in great part controlled by temperature and rainfall. See DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

The faunas of the earth are less dependent upon climate than the floras, since animals can migrate somewhat freely, and have, in greater or less degree, the ability to protect themselves from its adverse elements. Still, each climatic zone has a fauna of its own, differing markedly from neighboring ones; the polar from the temperate, and the temperate from the tropic zone. The musk-ox, polar bear, and Arctic foxes, blue and white, are confined to regions of ice and snow. In temperate regions their nearest relatives are the bison, the black and grizzly bears, and the red fox, who range with the wapiti, antelope, and many species of deer. The tropic fauna is probably less closely related to that of temperate regions. It is characterized by large mammals, the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, camel, lion, tiger, leopard, many species of marsupials (in Australia), monkeys, etc. The fauna of the desert differs widely from that of well-watered regions in amount, variety, and species, which is due, in great part, of course, to the difference in plant food-supply. In the same latitudes and similar climates there are both close agreements and wide differences. Thus the faunas of Europe and North America do not differ materially, but between Australia, Africa, and South America there are wide, even radical differences. Austra lia, with its marsupial fauna, resembles no other region on earth, and at few points are there resemblances between Africa and South America. The great carnivora of the former continent have few representatives in South America. See Dis

TRIBUTION OF ANIMALS.

Of all forms of life, man is the most cosmopoli. tan. He is found from the frozen regions to the equator. His ability to protect himself from vive even under those most adverse, but certain conditions seem to be the most favorable to his development. Arctic conditions, where besides a vere, are not conducive to his development. On hostile climate the economic conditions are sethe other hand, the languid climate of the tropics, with the ease of living, seems equally unfitted. for the development of civilization. It is in temperate climates, which stimulate exertion, and where effort meets with adequate reward, that man has reached the highest level.

hostile climatic conditions enables him to sur

The races of mankind are commonly classified according to color and other characteristics as fair-complexioned or Caucasian, yellow or Asiatic, brown or East Indian, red or American Indian, and black or negro. The Caucasians (including all the Indo-European peoples, the Semites and the Hamites, the last-named being dark-skinned) inhabit Europe, a large part of Asia (mainly in the south and southwest), Northern Africa, North America, South America (in parts of which they are outnumbered by the red race), and Australia, and are scattered, in

greater or less numbers, over other parts of the earth. The yellow race comprises the Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, Tibetans, and various peoples of Central and Southeastern Asia. The brown peoples are those of the Malay Peninsula, the East India Islands, and Polynesia. The American Indians inhabited the entire continent from Bering Strait to Cape Horn, but in Central and South America they have become much mixed in blood with their Spanish conquerors. The black race, whose home is. Africa, have been, subjected to forced migrations, under slavery, and many millions of them are now found in the United States, the West India Islands, and Brazil. See MAN, SCIENCE of.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The migrations of man over the earth's surface, his present location, and the stage of civilization which he has reached, are, in the last analysis, the results of geographical environment, whatever the immediate cause may be. Great Britain has become, because of her insular position, and her limited farming area, a great commercial nation. New England, by reason of the destructive competition of Western farms, has changed her industries from agriculture to manufactures. Thus the climate, soil, and surface determine in great measure the products and leading industries of a region, subject, of course, to the degree of civil

ization of the inhabitants.

The leading industries of mankind-pastoral pursuits, mining, fishing, agriculture, manufac tures, and commerce-require different forms of distribution of the inhabitants. Pastoral pursuits imply a very sparse population scantily distributed, since cattle and sheep require large areas for their sustenance. In agriculture, a much smaller area to a family suffices, implying a much denser population, while manufacturing and commerce require that people be closely grouped in towns and cities. Hence in the history of the settlement of a region, we may often trace a direct connection between the principal Vocations of the people and the average density of population. In early stages of settlement, when the people are few in number and widely separated, pastoral pursuits are the principal As population increases, the herders are crowded out by the farmers, and still later cities spring up and grow, and manufactures and commerce become the dominant industries.

ones.

Cities have been located from a great variety of considerations. Anciently a common cause of their location was protection from enemies, and hence they were placed in easily defensible positions. As wars have become less frequent, and as private property has become more exempt from danger, they have been placed in industrially strategical positions, commercial cities on har bors, manufacturing cities at sites of waterpower, etc. Often, however, through changes in industrial methods, such locations cease to be advantageous, yet, through sheer inertia, the cities remain and grow.

The form of land-holdings is significant of the degree of civilization, and often, on the other hand, may hasten or retard its progress. Among savage and barbarous peoples, and even those possessing some degree of civilization, such as the Russian peasantry, land is held in common by communities. Among most highly civilized peoples individual ownership is well-nigh uni

versal, and such a form of ownership undoubtedly conduces to a high development of the race, as it carries with it a sense of proprietorship and responsibility.

The people of the earth are organized into communities, various in form, size, and character, for governmental purposes. Savages are grouped in clans and tribes, civilized man into empires, kingdoms, and republics. With primitive man the functions of government are few, and are mainly confined to war, offensive and defensive, and the organization is feeble and often shortlived. With advance in civilization comes an increase in the strength of the government, and an extension of its functions. From being only an offensive and defensive league, the govern ment of a civilized nation defends the rights of its citizens against one another, protects them in person and property, in many cases educates them, and maintains public utilities, such as surveys, means of communication, water-supply, lighting, etc. Indeed, there is a perceptible ten dency to go much further in the direction of socialism, so as to endanger the self-dependence of the individual, as is shown in recent develop ments in Germany and the experiments in New Zealand.

The form of government, whether known as empire, monarchy, kingdom, or republic, differs widely in the degree of power centralized in the hands of the chief executive and that retained by the representatives of the people. As a rule, the more highly civilized the people, the greater the share which they have in the government, and the lower the degree of civilization, the which governments are known are in many cases more absolute is the sovereign. The names by not descriptive. Most of the countries of Western Europe which possess a high degree of civiliza tion are of the type which may be called constitutional monarchies. The executive power is in the hands of hereditary monarchs, and ministers of their choosing, while the laws are made by legislative bodies elected, in the main at least, by the people. Thus are governed the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Austria-Hungary, Norway and Sweden, Denmark, Rumania, Servia, and Bulgaria. France and Switzerland, as well as the United States, are republics, in which the executive head of the Government and the

legislative bodies are elected by the people. The other independent governments of America are nominally republics. Japan has recently been transformed into a constitutional monarchy. Russia, Turkey, Morocco, Persia, and Korea are absolute monarchies, in which the people have little or no voice. In the Chinese Empire the central authority is limited by the great measure of independence enjoyed by the individual prov inces.

The relations of colonies to the mother country are various in form. Certain colonies of the United Kingdom-Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Cape Colony, and Natal-are practically independent in local matters, the mother country being represented only by a Governor-General. who is nominally the administrative head, as the representative of the Crown. In India, the entire government is carried on by Englishmen. except in the native States, where British in fluence is exerted by a resident. Other colonies

of the United Kingdom are governed by the home country, as are most of the colonies of France and the Netherlands.

Boundaries between nations and States differ widely in character. Some follow defined parallels, or meridians, others the mid-channel or bank of a stream, others the summit of a moun tain range, while many follow a series of arbitrary lines, and are, it may be, the result of many adjustments. The boundaries of the older countries of Europe are in most cases of this last class. In any case, if the boundary has been surveyed and marked, the marks become the boundary whether they conform to the treaty or law or not.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For general reference, consult: Daniel, Handbuch der Geographie (6th ed., Leipzig, 1894-95); Hann, Hochstetter, Pokorny, Allgemeine Erdkunde (5th ed., Leipzig, 189699); Reclus, Nouvelle géographie universelle (19 vols., Paris, 1875-94); Huxley, Physiography (London, 1880); Keane, Evolution of Geography (London, 1899); Mill, International Geography (New York, 1900).-MATHEMATICAL: Clarke, Geodesy (Oxford, 1880); Günther, Handbuch der mathematischen Geographie (Stuttgart, 1890). -PHYSICAL: Fisher, Physics of the Earth's Crust (London, 1889): Supan, Grundzüge der physischen Erdkunde (Leipzig, 1896); Priem, La terre, les mers et les continents (Paris, 1892); Penck, Morphologie der Erdoberfläche (Stuttgart, 1894); Davis, Physical Geography (Boston, 1898); Geikie, Earth Sculpture (New York, 1898); Lapparent, Leçons de géographie physique (Paris, 1898); Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History (New York, 1898).-POLITICAL: Ratzel, Politische Geographie (Leipzig, 1897). Consult, also, the following periodicals: Petermann's Mittheilungen (Gotha, current); Geographical Journal (London, current); National Geographic Magazine (Washington, current).

HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY.

The history of geography falls naturally into two divisions, the first of which records the development of ideas regarding the shape and size of the earth, while the second deals with the gradual increase of definite information about the actual facts of land and water distribution. The conception of the earth as a flat surface, probably encircled by water, is common to all primitive peoples. This idea, which is still held by many savage tribes, was gradually discarded as the mathematical sciences and philosophical speculation in general developed, and the Greeks finally succeeded in proving that the world is a globe. Aristotle is ordinarily credited with this discovery, though the Pytha goreans taught the doctrine of the rotundity of the earth long before his time. Aristotle estimated the circumference of the globe at about 40,000 miles.

The earliest map representing the known portion of the earth is that of the Greek Anaximander, who lived B.C. 610 to 546. Hecatæus, also a Greek, who lived between B.C. 550 and 475, and who had traveled extensively in Egypt, Persia, Libya, Spain, and Italy, wrote a book describing these countries, and made a map improving and extending that of Anaximander. Thales, a Greek of Miletus, who flourished about B.C. 600, divided the earth into five climatic zones, much as they are recognized to-day, and introduced the

equator and meridians. He discovered that the plane of the ecliptic is inclined to that of the equator, and made a rough measurement of the inclination.

The real founder of scientific geography was Eratosthenes, librarian of Alexandria (c.276195 B.C.). He made accurate measurements of the length of the sun's shadow at Alexandria, and at the first cataract of the Nile, assuming that they were on the same meridian, and thus calculated the earth's circumference as about 25,000 miles, which is surprisingly near the actual figure.

Strabo, who was born about B.C. 60, was the first to attempt a work on general geography. His treatise consists of seventeen volumes, two of which are devoted to the world at large as an introduction, ten volumes to Europe, four to Asia, and the remaining one to Africa. The great work of Ptolemy, the Alexandrian, who lived in the second century of our era, marked an epoch in early geographical science, and was for many centuries the paramount authority on the subject of the earth, and his map was that universally used. Still, the map contained sev· eral serious errors, which had far-reaching results. He fell into the error of adopting the result given by Posidonius for the earth's circumference, and this, together with an error in the longitude of the Canaries, which marked his initial meridian, resulted in bringing the west coast of Europe and Africa within 9000 miles of the east coast of Asia. It was this which induced Columbus, thirteen and a half centuries later, to voyage westward to reach the Indies. The map is constructed on a reticule of parallels and meridians, and though its errors of position and form in detail are many, it shows in comparison with earlier maps, especially that of Hecatæus, a vast extension of the known world. The advances in knowledge thus made were largely lost during the Middle Ages, when the scholastics developed the older plane-surface theory of a world, with Jerusalem as the centre of the universe. The most elaborate treatise embodying these ideas is that of Cosmas Indicopleustes, who lived in the sixth century (a translation has been published by the Hakluyt Society, London, 1899). Many specimens of mediæval cartographs, embodying these ideas, have survived, the most important of which have been reproduced by Prof. Konrad Miller of Stuttgart. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography (London, 1879); Tozer, Ancient Geography (London, 1897); and Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography (London, 1897), are important works upon this phase of the subject. The modern development of ideas concerning the form and magnitude of the

earth is treated in the articles on ASTRONOMY and NAVIGATION.

EXPLORATION, ANCIENT. The legend of the Argonauts undoubtedly grew up around the story of actual voyages made by the early Greeks to the Far East. The Phoenicians were the first nation of discoverers, and, like most of their successors, they were animated by the desire of gain. Tyre and Sidon became great commercial centres, from which ships sailed to all the Mediterranean waters, and to which traders came from India and from the lands beyond the Red Sea a thousand years before the Christian Era. By the time of Herodotus (c.484-424 B.C.) Phoenician voyagers