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called to parliament in England, 1265; in Scotland in 1326; and in Ireland abou 1365. Burgesses to be resident in the places they represented in parliament, 1 Hen. V. (1413). During the colonial period the Virginia House of Representatives was called the House of Burgesses; see Borough.

Burghers AND ANTIBURGHERS. In 1732 Ebenezer Erskine and others seceded from the church of Scotland. Differing in regard to the interpretation of the burgess

oath, they divided into two sections with the foregoing

names in 1747. In 1820 they were reunited as the United Associate Synod of the Secession church, which on 13 May, 1847, joined the Relief church, together forming the United Presbyterian church.

Burglary was a capital offence till 1829. Formerly he who convicted a burglar was exempted from parish offices, 1699; Statute of Rewards, Anne, 1706, and 6 Geo. I. 1720. Receivers of stolen plate and other goods to be transported, 10 Geo. III. 1770. Persons having upon them picklock-keys, etc., to be deemed rogues and vagabonds, 13 Geo. III. 1772-3. The laws with respect to burglary were amended by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel's acts between 1823 and 1829, and by the criminal

laws of 1861.

Burglaries in England, 1871, 614; 1873, 433; 1875, 501; 1879,

420.

Burgos (Spain), the burial-place of the Cid, 1099. Lord Wellington entered Burgos on 19 Sept. after the battle of Salamanca (fought 22 July, 1812). The castle was besieged by the British and allied army; but the siege was abandoned 21 Oct. same year. The fortifications were blown up by the French, 12 June, 1813.

Burgundy, a large province in France, derives its name from the Burgundians, a Gothic tribe who overran Gaul in 275, and were driven out by the emperor Probus; they returned in 287, and were defeated by Maximin. In 413 they established a KINGDOM, comprising the present Burgundy, large parts of Switzerland, with Alsace, Savoy, Provence, etc. Gondicar, their leader, the first king. It was conquered by the Franks, 534.-The second kingdom, consisting of a part of the first, began with Gontran, son of Clotaire I. of France, in 561. The kingdoms of Arles, Provence, and Transjurane Burgundy were formed out of the old kingdom.-DUCHY. In 877 Charles the Bald made his brother-in-law Richard the first duke of Burgundy. In 938, Hugh the Great, count of Paris, founder of the house of Capet, obtained the duchy. His descendant Henry, on becoming king of France, conferred it on his brother Robert, in whose family it remained till the death of Philippe de Rouvre, without issue, in 1361. In 1363, king John of France made his fourth son, Philip, duke; see Austria and Germany.

1369.

DUKES.

1363. Philip the Bold; marries Margaret, heiress of Flanders, 1404. John the Fearless (son); joined the English invaders of France; privy to the assassination of the duke of Orleans in 1407; himself assassinated at Montereau, in presence of the dauphin, Sept. 1419.

1419. Philip the Good (son), the most powerful duke. 1467. Charles the Bold; married to Margaret of York, sister to Edward IV., 9 July, 1468; invaded France, 1472; Switzerland, 1476; killed in an engagement with the Swiss, before Nancy, 4 Jan. 1477. 1477. Mary (daughter); married, 19 Aug. 1477, to Maximilian of Austria; died 27 March, 1482.

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Linen scarfs introduced at funerals in Ireland, 1729; and woollen shrouds used.....

Burials taxed..

1733 1695

1783 1850-67

A tax enacted on burials in England-for the burial of a
duke 501., and for that of a common person 4s.-under
William III. 1695, and George III....
Acts relating to metropolitan burials passed
Parochial registers of burials, births, and marriages insti-
tuted in England by Cromwell, lord Essex, about 1538.
-Stow.

"Earth to earth" system of burial advocated by Mr. Sey-
mour Haden; wicker coffins exhibited at Stafford-
house..
...17 June, 1875

Consecrated burial-grounds in England, 13,673; closed,

1411..

1877

Burials Act (permitting any Christian service in a parish churchyard) passed.. .7 Sept. 1880 (See Dissenters.)

Burking, a new species of murder, committed in Britain, thus named from Burke, the first known criminal by whom it was perpetrated. His victims were killed by pressure or other modes of suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no marks of violence, were sold to the surgeons for dissection. He was executed at EdA monster named Bishop was inburgh, 28 Jan. 1829. apprehended in Nov. 1831, and executed in London, 5 Dec., with Williams, one of his accomplices, for the murder of a poor, friendless Italian boy named Carlo Ferrari. They confessed to this and other similar murders.

Burlingame Treaty, promoted by Mr. Anson Burlingame and a Chinese embassy, and signed at Washington 4 July, 1868. It authorized mutual immigration. California prospered through Chinese labor; but depression in 1879-80 led to a demand for its expulsion and abrogation of the treaty. Two new treaties between the United States and China, one relating to immigration and the other to commerce, were signed 17

Nov. 1880.

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works of art, and promoting intercourse between artists, Burlington Fine Arts Club, for exhibiting amateurs, etc., founded 1867.

Burlington Heights. After a fierce contest here between the British and the United States forces, 6 June, 1813, the British carried the heights.

Burlington House (Piccadilly, London) was built by Denham for lord Burlington about 1664, and rebuilt by lord Burlington, the architect, about 1731. It was bought for 140,000l. by the government, authorized by vote of the house of commons, on 27 July, 1854. It became the home of the Royal, Linnean, and Chemical societies in 1857 (who occupied new rooms in 1873), and of the Antiquaries, Geological, and Royal Astronomical societies in 1873. In 1866, sites for buildings for the University of London and the Royal Academy were granted in the grounds of Burlington House. The entrance, colonnade, etc., were removed in 1868, and the exhibition of the Royal Academy was first opened here 3 May, 1869. Burlington charity-school, near here, founded 1699.

middle of the eighteenth century by Alompra, the first Burmah, or Burmese Empire, founded in the sovereign of the present dynasty. Our first dispute with this formidable power in 1795 was amicably adjusted by 1479. Louis XI. annexed Burgundy to France. The other do-ish in 1824, and they took Rangoon on 11 May. The gen. Erskine. Hostilities were commenced by the Brit

minions fell to Austria.

Burials. Abraham buried Sarah at Machpelah, 1860 B.C., Gen. xxiii. Places of burial were consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in A.D. 210.-Eusebius. The Greeks had their burial-places at a distance from their towns; the Romans near the highways; hence the necessity for inscriptions. The first Christian burial-place, it is said,

was instituted in 596; burial in cities, 742; in consecrated places, 750; in churchyards, 758. Many of the early Christians are buried in the catacombs at Rome; see Catacombs, Cemeteries, and Dissenters.

1075

Vaults erected in chancels first at Canterbury...
Woollen shrouds only permitted to be used in England.. 1666

After a

short armistice, hostilities were renewed, 1 Dec. same fort and pagoda of Syriam were taken in 1825. year, and pursued until the successive victories of the ture of peace, 24 Feb. 1826. For the events of this war, British led to the cession of Arracan, and to the signaand of the war in 1851, see India. Pegu was annexed to our Indian empire 20 Dec. 1852.

June, 1853.

The war ended 20

Rebellion against the king suppressed by British aid, about Sept. 1868 Treaties with Great Britain..... .....1862 and 25 Oct. 1867 Burmese embassy in England, 6 June; introduced to the queen ..21 June, 1872

BUR

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The king eventually acceded to the British demands; announced.

.Oct.

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......2 Oct. 1878 The king dies, about 5 Sept.; announced. His successor, Theebau (Wongyee, prince of Theebau), kills many of the royal family and their friends.. Feb. 1879 The British resident and others quit Mandalay....8 Oct. The king, attacked by small-pox, commits fresh atroci12 April, 1880 ties... Prince Nyoung's rebellion, May, June, suppressed; he .27 June, enters British territory..

Burnett Prizes, to be awarded every 40 years to the authors of the two best essays on "the evidence that there is a Being all powerful, wise, and good, by whom everything exists, etc.," were founded by Mr. Burnett, a Scottish gentleman, who died 1784, bequeathing moneys for the purpose. Various amounts have been paid to Dr. W. L. Brown, to rev. J. B. Sumner, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, 1815; to Rev. R. A. Thompson, and to Dr. J. Tulloch, 1855. The establishment of a Burnett lectureship in Aberdeen by the trustees (the lecturer to be chosen in 1883) was sanctioned Aug. 1880; but opposed by the house of lords, 24 Jan.

1881.

Burnham Beeches (Bucks), the picturesque remains of an ancient forest, were purcnased for public use by the corporation of London in 1879.

Burning Alive was inflicted among the Romans, Jews, and other nations, and was countenanced by bulls of the pope; see Witches. Many persons have been burned alive as heretics. Sir William Sawtre, priest of St. Osyth, London, suffered 12 Feb. 1401. In the reign of Mary numbers were burned; see Protestants. Eliza beth Gaunt, an Anabaptist, was burned at Tyburn for treason (concealing rebels under Monmouth), 23 Oct. 1685.

Burning the Dead was practised among the Greeks and Romans, and Homer gives descriptions. It was very general about 1225 B.C., and was revived by

Sylla about 78 B.C. It is still practised in parts of the
East Indies, and has been advocated in this country by
the eminent surgeon, sir Henry Thompson, and others,
1873; see Suttees, Barrows.

Professor L. Brunetti exhibited his plan and results at
the Vienna exhibition..
Cremation societies founded in London, Vienna, and Ber-
lin, etc..

1873

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13 Jan. 1874 The corpse of the wife of sir Charles Dilke, with coffin, ...10 Oct. burned at Dresden; ashes about 6 lbs... The erection of a crematorium at Woking stopped by summer, 1879 authorities..... Their Burning-glass and CONCAVE MIRRORS. power was known to Archimedes, and it is even asserted that by their aid he burned a fleet in the harbor of Syracuse, 214 B.C. Their powers were increased by Settalla; Tschirnhausen, 1680; Buffon, 1747; and Parker and others more recently. The following experiments were made about 1800 with Mr. Parker's lens or burning-mirror, which cost 700l., and is said to have been the largest ever made. It was sold to capt. Mackenzie, who took it to China, and left it at Pekin.

Substances fused.

Weight. Time. 20 grains, 4 seconds.

Pure gold..

Silver.

20

3

66

Copper.

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Platina

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Cast-iron (a cube).

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64

Steel

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A topaz..

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An emerald..

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44

A crystal pebble.

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Flint

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Cornelian

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Pumice-stone..

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Green wood takes fire instantaneously; water boils immedi

Burton Crescent (London). Here Mrs. Rachael Samuel, a widow living alone, was murdered in the night 11 Dec. 1878. No robbery. Mary Donovan, a charwoman, was arrested and discharged, 10 Jan. 1879.

Burwell Fire. A number of persons assembled to see a puppet-show in a barn at Burwell, near Newmarket, 8 Sept. 1727. A candle having set fire to a heap of straw, seventy-six individuals perished, and others died of their wounds.

Bury St. Edmund's (Suffolk), named from St. Edmund, king of East Anglia, who was murdered by the Danes on 20 Nov. 870, and buried here, and to whose memory its magnificent abbey was founded. Magna Charta was prepared here by the barons on 20 Nov. 1214. Henry VI. summoned a parliament in Feb. 1447, when Humphry, duke of Gloucester, was imprisoned, and died here, it is supposed by poison. It was almost consumed by fire in 1608, and was desolated by plague in 1636.

Lord

Burying Alive. In Boeotia, Creon ordered Antigone, the sister of Polynices, to be buried alive, 1225 B.C. The Roman vestals were subjected to it for any levity that excited suspicion of their chastity. The vestals buried alive on a charge of incontinence were Minutia, 337 B.C.; Sextilla, 274 B.C.; Cornelia, A.D. 92. Bacon gives instances of the resurrection of persons who had been buried alive, Duns Scotus being of the number. The two assassins of Capo d'Istria, president of Greece, were sentenced to be immured in brick walls built around them up to their chins, and to be supplied with food in this species of torture until they died, Oct. 1831.

Busaco, or Buzaco (Portugal). Here the British, under lord Wellington, repulsed the French under Massena, 27 Sept. 1810. The latter lost one general and 1000 men killed, two generals and about 3000 men wounded, and several hundred prisoners; the loss of the allies did not exceed 1300; the British retreated to the lines of Torres Vedras, too strong for Massena to force, and the armies remained in sight of each other to the end of the year.

Bushel. This measure was ordered to contain eight gallons of wheat, 12 Hen. VIII. 1520; the legal Winchester bushel was regulated 9 Will. III. 1697; the imperial corn bushel of 2218.192 cubic inches is to the Winchester of 2150.42 as 32 to 31. Regulated by act 5 Geo. IV., June, 1824, which act came into operation 1 Jan. 1826. The same in the United States.

Bushire (on the Persian Gulf), attacked by sea by sir H. Leeke, and by land by gen. Stalker, was taken 10 Dec. 1856. The place proved stronger than was expected, and was bravely defended. Brigadier Stopford and col. Malet were killed in a previous attack on the fort at Reshire, 9 Dec. The loss of the British was four officers killed and one wounded; five men killed and thirty-five wounded.

Bushrangers, Australian highwaymen, formerly escaped convicts. Morgan, a desperate robber and murderer, was surrounded and shot April, 1865. The "Kelly gang" seized and pillaged the town of Jerilderie, New South Wales, 8-10 Feb. 1879. Ned Kelly and some of his gang were captured and taken to Melbourne, 27, 28 June, 1880.

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ately; bones are calcined; and things not capable of melt- The Butchers' Company in London is ancient, though not

ing at once become red-hot, like iron.

incorporated till 1604.

Bute Administration. John, earl of Bute,* tutor | ship to Romanists, was suppressed 1603. It was called of prince George (afterwards George III.), formed an ad- also the "surprise plot." ministration in May, 1762, which, after various changes, resigned 8 April, 1763. It was severely attacked by

Junius and John Wilkes.

John, earl of Bute, first lord of the treasury.

Sir Francis Dashwood, chancellor of the exchequer.
Earl Granville, president of the council.

Duke of Bedford, privy seal.

Earl of Halifax, admiralty.

Earl of Egremont and George Granville, secretaries of state.
Lord Ligonier, ordnance.

Henry Fox, afterwards lord Holland, paymaster of the forces.
Viscount Barrington, treasurer of the navy.

Lord Sandys, first lord of trade.

By-laws, or BYE-LAWS, private ordinances made by subordinate communities, such as corporations. These laws must not militate against the law of the land. By 5 & 6 Will. IV. 1834, those made by corporate bodies become valid, if not disallowed by the king's council with-* in forty days after their enactment.

Byng, HON. ADMIRAL JOHN, was charged with neglect of duty in an engagement with the enemy off Minorca, 20 May, 1756, condemned for an error of judgment, and shot on board the Monarch at Spithead, 14

Duke of Marlborough, earl Talbot, lord Huntingdon, lord An- March, 1757. son, lord North, etc.

Byron National Memorial. Its erection determined on, at a meeting in London, 16 July, 1875; Mr. Disraeli in the chair.

About 30007. were subscribed.

Butter is said to have been used by the Arabs in early times, but not by the Greeks and Romans, who had excellent oil. It is not mentioned as food by Galen, The statue by Richard Claude Belt, placed on a pedestal A.D. 130-200. It has long been used by northern nanear Hamilton place, Hyde Park, was uncovered pritions. Various statutes have passed respecting its pack-vately by lord Houghton, 24 May, 1880. A marble pedage, weight, and sale; the principal of which are the estal was promised by the Greeks. 36th & 38th Geo. III. and 10 Geo. IV. 1829. In Africa, vegetable butter is made from the fruit of the shea tree, and is of richer taste, at Kebba, than any butter made from cow's milk.-Mungo Park. The import duties of 58. per cwt. on foreign butter (producing, in 1859, 104,5877. on 421,354 cwt.) was repealed in 1860. Butter imported, 1846, 257,385 cwt.; 1856, 513,392 cwt.; 1866, 1,165,081 cwt.; 1870, 1,159,210 cwt.; 1874, 1,619,808 cwt.; 1876, 1,659,492 cwt.; 1877, 1,637,403 cwt.; 1879, 2,045,399 cwt. The export of butter from the United States, during the year ended June 30, 1880, amounted to 31,061,610 lbs., valued at $5,179,071.

Buttons, an early manufacture in England; those covered with cloth were prohibited, to encourage the manufacture of metal buttons, 8 Geo. I. 1721. Buttons largely employed to ornament ladies' dresses, 187381.

Byron's Voyage. Commodore Byron left England on his voyage round the globe, 21 June, 1764, and returned 9 May, 1766. He discovered the populous island in the Pacific Ocean which bears his name, 16 Aug. 1765. Though brave and intrepid, such was his general ill-fortune at sea that he was called by the sailors of the fleet "Foulweather Jack."

Byzantium, now Constantinople, and Stamboul, in the ancient Thrace, founded by a colony of Megarians, under Byzas, 667 B.C.; but various dates and persons are given. It was taken successively by the Medes, Athenians, and Spartans. In 340 B.C., in alliance with the Athenians, the Byzantines defeated the fleet of Philip of Macedon. During the wars with Macedon, Syria, etc., it became an ally of the Romans, by whom it was taken, A.D. 73. Rebelling, it was taken after two years' siege, and laid in ruins by Severus in 196. It was Buxar, a town in Bengal, near which, on 23 Oct, refounded by Constantine in 324, and dedicated on 22 1764, major, afterwards sir Hector Monro (with 857 Eu-May, 330, all the heathen temples being destroyed; and from him it received its name; see Constantinople. BYropeans and 6215 Sepoys) gained a great victory over ZANTINE ART flourished from the time of Constantine to the troops of the nabob of Oude, etc., 50,000 in number; 6000 of these were killed, and 130 pieces of cannon were taken. The loss of the English was trifling.

Bye Plot, of lord Gray of Wilton and others, to imprison James I., and compel him to grant liberty of wor

about 1204. The BYZANTINE or Eastern empire really commenced in 395, when Theodosius divided the Roman empire; see East. The "Byzantine Historians," from 325 to 1453, were published at Paris, 1645-1711; and at Venice, 1722-33.

C.

Caaba, a sacred black stone, kept in a temple at | Ben-Jochai, A.D. 72–110. The true date of the books Mecca, and venerated by the Arabs, long before the Christian era. Its guardians, the tribe of Koreish, were defeated by Mahomet and the worship abolished, 623

630.

Cabal. In English history the term has been applied to the cabinet of Charles II. 1667-74; the word Cabal being formed from the initials of their names: sir Thomas, afterwards lord Clifford (C); the lord Ashley (A), (afterwards earl of Shaftesbury); George Villiers, duke of Buckingham (B); Henry, lord Arlington (A); and John, duke of Lauderdale (L).

Cabala, a Jewish system of philosophy or theosophy, deriving its name from a Hebrew word signifying reception or tradition, said to have been given by God to Adam, and transmitted from father to son by his descendants. It is said to have been lost at the Babylonian captivity (587 B.C.), but to have been revealed again to Ezra. Its supporters assert that the cabalistic book "Sohar," or "Splendour," a mystic commentary on the Pentateuch, was first committed to writing by Simon

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containing the cabala is now considered to range from the ninth to the fourteenth century, and their origin to be the mingling of Talmudism with the Greek philosophy termed Neo-Platonism. Some of their dogmas are akin to Christian tenets, such as the trinity, the incarnation, etc. The cabala exercised much influence upon the mental development of the Jews, and even captivated the greatest thinkers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

Cabbages. Some new kinds were brought to England from Holland about 1510, it is said by sir Arthur Ashley of Dorset, and introduced into Scotland by Crom

well's soldiers.

Cabeira (Asia Minor). Here Mithridates, king of Pontus, was defeated by Lucullus, 71 B.C.

Cabinet Council. In the U. S. government the heads of the different departments compose a council, which is known as a cabinet. They are appointed by the president, and hold office at his will, and are, under him, the executive officers of the general government. The secretaries of state, treasury, war, nury, interior, and John Stuart, earl of Bute, born 1713; secretary of state, March, 1761; prime-minister, May, 1762; died 10 March, 1792. I the postmaster-general and attorney-general, form the cab

inet. There were councils in England as early as the | about 20,000 Kentish men, who armed "to punish evil reign of Ina, king of the West Saxons, 690; Offa, king ministers, and procure a redress of grievances." He deof the Mercians, 758; and in other reigns of the Hep-feated and slew sir Humphry Stafford, at Sevenoaks, 27 tarchy. State councils are referred to Alfred the Great. June; entered London in triumph, and beheaded the -Spelman; see Administrations. CABINET NOIR, or lord treasurer, lord Saye, and several other persons of "Dark Closet," the chamber in which letters intrusted consequence, 3 July. When the insurgents lost ground, to the French post were opened for state purposes. The a general pardon was proclaimed, and Cade, deserted by system, which began with Louis XI., was organized un- his followers, fled. A reward having been offered for his der Louis XV.; and is said to have been discontinued apprehension, he was discovered, and, refusing to surin 1868. render, was slain by Alexander Iden, sheriff of Kent, 11 July.

Cables. A machine was invented in 1792 for making them, by which human labor was reduced nine tenths. Chain cables were introduced into the British navy about 1812; directions for testing them enacted,

1864 and 1874.

Cabochiens, an armed Burgundian faction, including 500 butchers, named from their leader Simonet Caboche, a skinner, 1412. They ruled Paris with violence, and constrained the doctors of the Sorbonne to become their allies and the dauphin to recognize them as the "White Hoods," and reformers. They were exterminated by the citizens in 1418.

The

Cabriolets (vulgo Cabs), one-horsed vehicles, were introduced into the streets of London in 1822, when the number plying was twelve. In 1831 they had increased to 165, and then the licenses were thrown open. number in 1862 running in the metropolis exceeded 6000 (of which about 1800 only plied on Sunday). Previous to throwing open the trade, the number of hackney-carriages was limited to 1200, when there were few omnibuses; see Hackney-coaches.

Cab Strike.-On 28 June, 1853, an act (called Mr. FitzRoy's act) was passed for "the better regulation of metropolitan stage and hackney carriages, and for prohibiting the use of advertising vehicles," by which the cab fares were reduced to 6d. a mile. It came into operation 11 July, and on the 27th a general strike of the London cabmen took place. Much inconvenience was felt, and every kind of vehicle was employed to supply the deficiency. Some alterations having been made in the act, the cabs reappeared on the stands on the 30th.

Cabman's clubs began at Paddington in..

.Feb. 1859

A London General Cab Company published its prospec-
tus, professing a reformed system..
..July, 1862
Cabs running in London: in 1855, 3296; in 1867, 6149; in
1874, 7864; in 1877, about 8000.

Cab Tragedy.-S. H. Hunt, a servant of Butler and Mc-
Culloch's, seedsmen, Covent Garden, London, poisoned
his wife and children in a cab, on 7 Nov. 1863; and
himself on 9 Nov., at his own house, just before his ap-
prehension.

The cabmen in Paris strike against a company; above
3000 vehicles stopped, 16 June; fierce attack on men
who give in; strike subsides....
..23 June, 1865
Second Cab Strike.-Metropolitan Streets Act, 30 & 31
Vict. c. 17 (passed 20 Aug.), required hackney-carriages
to carry lamps; and changed lowest fare from 6d. to
1s. The cab proprietors and drivers struck at 4 P.M.,
8 Dec.; but, by the intervention of lord Elcho, an ar-
rangement was made with Mr. Gathorne Hardy, the
home secretary, and the strike ceased..........4 Dec. 1867
Third Cab Strike to compel railway companies to discon-
tinue privileged cabs; unsuccessful. .5-9 Sept. 1868
Licenses on cabs reduced from 197. and 177. to 42s. by act
of 1869...
.1 Jan. 1870

Cab-drivers' Benevolent Association founded...
First Cabmen's Shelter opened by hon. A. Kinnaird at St.
John's Wood, 6 Feb. 1875; others soon after. Cab-
men's Mission Hall, King's Cross, London, N., opened,

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12 Nov. 1875

Cabul, or CABOOL, on the river Cabul, about 1774, by Timsur Shah, was made capital of Afghanistan (which see).

Cachet, see Lettres de Cachet.

Caddee, or LEAGUE OF GOD'S HOUSE, the league of independence in Switzerland, formed by the Grisons to resist domestic tyranny, 1400 to 1419. A second league of the Grisons was called the Grise or Gray League (Graubündten), 1424. A third league, the League of Ten Jurisdictions, was formed in 1436; see Grisons. They united in 1471.

Cade's Insurrection.

In May, 1450, Jack Cade, an Irishman, assumed the name of Mortimer, and headed

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Cadmium, a metal, discovered by Stromeyer and Hermann in 1818.

Cæcilian Society, instituted in London in 1785, for the performance of sacred music, especially Handel's. At first it met at private houses, afterwards at various city company halls, and finally at Albion Hall, Moorfields, till its dissolution in 1861. Mr. Z. W. Vincent, the first conductor, held the office for upwards of thirty years. Out of this society, which was the predecessor of the Sacred Harmonic Society, came many eminent professional musicians.

Caen (N. France), a place of importance before 912, when it became the capital of the possessions of the Normans, under whom it flourished. It was taken by the English in 1346 and 1417; but was finally recovered by the French 1 July, 1450. Here were buried William the Conqueror (1087) and his queen (1083).

His

Caerleon, Monmouthshire, a Roman station, and made the seat of an archbishopric by Dubritius. disciple and successor, St. David (522), removed it to Menevia, now St. David's, 577.

Caernarvon (N. Wales). In the castle (founded in 1282) Edward II. was born, 25 April, 1284; and the town was then chartered by Edward I. The town suffered by the civil war of Charles, but was finally retained for the parliament.

Cæsarea, the Roman capital of Judæa, built by Herod the Great 10 B.C. Eusebius the historian was bishop about 315.

Cæsarean Section, which, it is said, first gave the name of Cæsar to the Roman family, is performed by cutting the child out of the womb.*

Cæsars, see Rome, Emperors. The Era of the

*The case of Alice O'Neal, an Irishwoman, who survived the section, which was performed by a female, is authenticated by Dr. Gabriel King, of Armagh, and surgeon Duncan Stewart of Dungannon. In Jan. 1847, the operation was performed in St. Bartholomew's hospital, London, on a young woman of diminutive stature, under the influence of ether; but she died the next day. On 9 Dec. 1860, a similar operation was successfully performed by Dr. James Edmunds at Bethnal Green. On the continent the operation is said to have been more frequent and more successful. Cooper's "Surgical Dictionary" (ed. 1861) contains a table, which, out of 2009 cases, gives a mortality of 55.4 per cent. of the mothers and 29.45 per cent. of the children.

CAL

machines to calculate and print have been devised. Pascal, when nineteen years of age, invented one (about 1650). The construction of Mr. C. Babbage's differential machine was commenced at the expense of government in 1821, and continued till 1833, when the work was suspended after an expenditure of above 15,000. The portion completed was placed in the library of King's College, London; it is now at South Kensington. Professor Clifford, in his lecture at the Royal Institution, 24 May, 1872, stated that Babbage expended 20,000l. upon his

Cæsars, or Spanish Era, is reckoned from 1 Jan. 38 B.C., being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. It was much used in Africa, Spain, and the south of France; but by a synod held in 1180 its use was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona. Pedro IV. of Aragon abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John of Castile did the same in 1383. It was used in Portugal till 1415, if not till 1422. The months and days of this era are identical with the Julian calendar; and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract thirty-eight from the year; but if before the Chris-machines, and that the analytical machine was nearly tian era, subtract thirty-nine.

Cæsium (Latin, bluish), a rare alkaline metal, found in some mineral waters by Bunsen in 1861, by means of the "spectrum analysis" (which see).

Cafeine, an alkaline body, discovered in coffee by Runge in 1820, and in tea (and named théine) by Oudry in 1827. The identity of the two was proved by Jobst and Mulder in 1828.

finished and would eventually be much used. In 1857 Messrs. E. and G. Scheutz, two Swedish engineers, published in London specimen tables, calculated and printed by machinery constructed between 1837 and 1843, after a Scheutz brought their machine to England in 1854. It study of the account of Mr. Babbage's machine. Messrs. was bought for 1000l. by Mr. J. F. Rathbone, an American merchant, to be presented to Dudley observatory, in his own city, Albany. In 1857 Messrs. Scheutz were engaged to make one for the British government, which is now completed. Mr. Wiberg's machine, exhibited at Cagots, an outcast race in the Pyrenees, supposed to Paris, Feb. 1863, was much commended. Tables conbe descendants of the ancient Goths. They have been structed by means of Scheutz's machine, and edited by subjected to superstitious persecution so lately as 1755. Dr. W. Farre, were published by the government in 1864. Cai-fong, the old capital of China, was besieged by in 1822 (?), exhibited at the International exhibitions, The arithmometer, patented by M. Thomas (de Colmar) 100,000 rebels in 1642. The commander of the reliev- 1851 and 1862, is said to be in use in assurance offices. ing forces, in order to drown the enemy, broke down its George B. Grant described a simpler machine in the embankments. All the besiegers and 300,000 of the citi-American Journal of Science, Oct. 1874. zens perished.

Caffraria, AND CAFFRE WAR, see Kaffraria.
Cagliari, see Naples, note.

Ça Ira! the burden of a popular song during the French revolution, first heard at Paris 5 Oct. 1789: "Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira! Malgré les mutins, tout réussira." An after-addition was "Les aristocrates à la lanterne !" ("It will proceed! etc. In spite of mutineers, all will succeed." "Hang the aristocrats!")

Cairo, or GRAND CAIRO, the modern capital of Egypt, remarkable for its mosques and the sepulchres of its Fatimite caliphs; see Egypt.

Partially built by the Saracens..

Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans..
Ruined by an earthquake and a great fire, when 40,000
persons perished..

969

1517

..June, 1754

[blocks in formation]

Taken by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte; they enter the city..

Massacre of the Mamelukes..

Visit of the prince of Wales..

27 June, 1801 ..1 March, 1811 March, 1862

Riots against Nubar Pacha and the British ministers,
18 Feb. 1879

Calcutta, capital of Bengal and British India; the first settlement of the English here was made in 1689. Population, 1876, 776,579.

Purchased as a zemindary, and Fort William built..
Made the head of a separate presidency.....
The fort attacked and taken by an army of 70,000 horse
and foot, and 400 elephants (146 of the British crammed
into the "Black-hole prison," a dungeon about 18 feet
square, from whence 23 only came forth the next
morning alive)...

Calcutta retaken by Clive.

Supreme court of judicature established..
Asiatic Society founded..
College founded.

Bishopric of Calcutta instituted by act....
Bishop's College founded.

Cathedral founded..

An industrial exhibition opened.

1698 1707

.20 June, 1756

.2 Jan. 1757

1773

1784

1801

.July, 1813

1820

1840

25 Jan. 1855

Great cyclone, followed by a "bore" or spring tide in
the Hooghly; water rises 30 feet high; immense dam-
age done to shipping and houses (see Cyclone)...5 Oct. 1864
Another cyclone; about 30,000 small houses unroofed;
much small shipping injured; and the crops in Lower
Visited by the king of Siam.
Bengal destroyed (about 90,000 persons drowned;
75,000 die of cholera)...

...1 Nov. 1867 ...Jan. 1872

Visited by the prince of Wales.......25 Dec. 1875-3 Jan. 1876
Statue of lord Mayo unveiled by him..
wan, unveiled..

...1 Jan. 66 .1 Jan. 1878

Calabria (the ancient Messapia of S.E. Italy) was conquered by the Romans 266 B.C. It formed part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths under Theodoric, A.D. 493; was reconquered (for the Eastern empire) by Beli-Statue of the queen, given by the maharajah of Burdsarius, 536; subdued by the Lombards and joined to the duchy of Benevento, 572. After various changes, it was conquered by Robert Guiscard, the Norman, 1058, who obtained the title of duke of Calabria, and eventually that of king of Naples; see Naples.

Calais (N.W. France), fortified by Baldwin IV., count of Flanders, 997; taken by Edward III. after a year's siege, 4 Aug. 1347. It was retaken by the duke of Guise, in the reign of Mary, 7 Jan. 1558, and its loss so deeply touched the queen's heart as to cause some to say it occasioned her death, which occurred soon afterwards, 17 Nov. same year. "When I am dead," said the queen, "Calais will be found written on my heart." It was taken by the Spaniards, April, 1596; restored, 1598. Here Louis XVIII. landed after his long exile from France, April, 1814; see Tunnels.

Calatrava, see Knighthood.

Calcium, the metallic base of lime, was discovered at the Royal Institution, London, by Humphry Davy, in

1808.

(See Bengal and India.)
Caledonia (now Scotland). The name is supposed
by some to be derived from Gael, or Gaelmen or Gadel
doine, corrupted by the Romans. Tacitus, who died 99,
of Caledonia. Venerable Bede says that it retained this
distinguishes this portion of Britain by the appellation
land and called Scotia. The ancient inhabitants appear
name until 258, when it was invaded by a tribe from Ire
to have been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the
Celts, who passed over from the opposite coast of Gaul.
About the beginning of the fourth century of the Chris-
tian era they were invaded (as stated by some authori-
ties) by the Scuyths or Scythins (since called Scots),
who, having driven the Picts into the north, settled in
the Lowlands, and gave their name to the whole coun-
try; see Scotland.

Caledonian monarchy, said to have been founded by Fer-
gus I...

about B.C. 330 140 ....A. D. 79

The Picts from England settle in the south..
Agricola, the Roman, invades Caledonia..
He defeats Galgacus, and builds a wall between the Forth
and Clyde...
Wall of Antoninus built.

Calculating-machines. To avoid errors in com-
puting and printing logarithms and tables of figures, | Ulpius Marcellus repels their incursions..

84

140

184

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