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to prevent adulteration of food and drugs passed 10 Aug. 1872. Penalties for adulterating liquors were imposed by the new licensing act passed same time. The report of a commission, issued in July, 1874, declared that the public "were cheated rather than poisoned." All the anti-adulteration acts were repealed by the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, passed 11 Aug. 1875; which was amended in 1879.

Adultery was punished with death by the law of Moses (1490 B.C.; Lev. xx. 10), and by Lycurgus (884 B.C.). The early Saxons burned the adulteress and erected a gibbet over her ashes, whereon they hanged the adulterer. The ears and nose were cut off under Canute, 1031. Adultery was ordained to be punished capitally by the parliament, May 14, 1650; but there is no record of this law taking effect; and it was repealed at the restoration. In New England the punishment for adultery was made capital to both parties, and several suffered for it, 1662.-Hardie. Till 1857 the legal redress against the male offender was by civil action for a money compensation, the female being liable to divorce. By 20 & 21 Vict. c. 85 (1857), the "action for criminal conversation" was abolished, and the Court for Divorce and

Matrimonial Causes established with power to grant divorces for adultery and ill-usage; see Divorce. An act was passed in 1869 permitting parties to suits for adultery to give evidence. In the United States adultery is variously punished under differing state laws, usually by fine or imprisonment or both. It is also good ground for

absolute divorce in all the states.

Advent (adventus, arrival). The season includes four Sundays, previous to Christmas, the first the nearest Sunday to St. Andrew's day (Nov. 30), before or after. Homilies respecting Advent are mentioned prior to 378. Advent Sunday, 1880, 28 Nov.; 1881, 27 Nov.; 1882, 3 Dec.; 1883, 2 Dec.; 1884, 30 Nov.; 1885, 29 Nov.

Adventists. An American sect who look for the early second coming of Christ. A fanatical member of the sect in Pocasset, Mass., professing to imitate Abraham, sacrificed his child, the mother looking on, May, 1879.

Adventure Bay, S.E. end of Van Diemen's Land, discovered in 1773 by capt. Furneaux in his first voyage to the Pacific, and named from his ship Adventure. It was visited by capt. Cook 1777; by capt. Bligh in 1788

and 1792.

Adventurers, see Merchants.

Advertisements IN NEWSPAPERS, as now published, were not general in England till the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty of 50%. was inflicted on persons advertising a reward with "No questions to be asked" for the return of things stolen, and on the printer, 1754. The advertisement duty (first enacted 1712), formerly charged according to the number of lines, was afterwards fixed, in England, at 3s. 6d., and in Ireland at 2s. 6d. each advertisement. The duty (further reduced, in England to 18. 6d. and in Ireland to 1s. each, in 1833) was abolished in 1853.

Early advertisements are found in Perfect Occurences of every Daie, 26 March to 2 April, 1647, and Mercurius Eleneticus.

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.4 Oct. 1648 H. Sampson's History of Advertising," published. Nov, 1874 The whole libretto of Macfarren's opera "Robin Hood" inserted as an advertisement in the Times (4%1⁄2 columus).... .16 Oct. 1860 A debate in the Portuguese parliament, translated, inserted as advertisement in the Daily News (8 columns). ..3 May, 1877 ADVERTISING VANS, a great nuisance, prohibited... 1853 The American system of advertising agencies was originated by Orlando Bourne in 1828. The system was brought to perfection in 1860.

Advocate, THE KING'S (always a doctor of the civil law), was empowered to prosecute at his own instance certain crimes about 1597. The LORD ADVOCATE in Scotland is the same as the attorney-general in England with judicial powers.-It was decided in the

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parliament of Paris in 1685 that the king's advocate of France might at the same time be a judge; and in Scotland, sir William Oliphant (1612) and sir John Nesbit (1666) were lord advocates and lords of session at the same time.—Beatson. The Advocates' library in Edinburgh was established by sir G. Mackenzie about 1682; see Judge Advocate.

Ediles. Roman city officers of three degrees, said to owe their name to having had charge of the ades, or temple, of Ceres. 1. Two plebeian ædiles were appointed with the tribunes to assist them in looking after buildings, weights, and measures, the supply of provisions and water, etc., 494 B.C. 2. The ædiles curules, at first patricians, were appointed 365 B.C. 3. Julius Cæsar appointed ædiles cereales for watching over the supply of corn. The ædiles became a kind of police under the emperors.

Edui, or Hedui, a Celtic people, N.E. France, who were delivered from subjection to the Sequani by Julius Cæsar, B.C. 58; but afterwards, opposing him, were subjugated by him, 52. Their insurrection, headed by Julius Sacrovir, A.D. 21, was quelled by C. Silius.

Agates Isles, W. of Sicily: near these, during the first Punic war, the Roman consul C. Lutatius Catulus gained a decisive victory over the Carthaginian fleet unPeace ensued, the Roder Hanno, 10 March, 241 B.C. mans obtaining Sicily and a tribute of 3200 talents. Ægina, a Greek island, a rival of Athens, was humbled by Themistocles, 485 B.C.; and taken and its works destroyed, 455. Its inhabitants expelled, 431, were restored by the Spartans, 404; they renewed war with Athens, 388, and made peace, 387.

Ægospotami (the Goat-rivers), in the Chersonesus, where Lysander, the Lacedæmonian, defeated the Athenian fleet, 405 B.C., and ended the Peloponnesian

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Alfric Society, founded 1842; closed 1856; puband other Anglo-Saxon works. lished "Homilies of Elfric, Archbishop of Canterbury,"

Ælia Capitolina, built on the ruins of Jerusalem by the emperor Adrian, 130.

Æmilia, the name given to the provinces of Parma, Modena, and the Romagna, united to Sardinia in 1860, and now part of the kingdom of Italy.

Eneid, the great Latin epic poem relating the adventures of Æneas, written about 24 B.C. by Virgil, who died 22 Sept. 19 B.C., before he had finally corrected the poem. It was first printed in 1469 at Rome.

Enigma. Samson's riddle (about 1141 B.C.; Judg. xiv. 12) is the earliest on record. Gale attributes ænigmatical speeches to the Egyptians. The ancient oracles frequently gave responses admitting of perfectly contrary interpretations. In Nero's time, the Romans had recourse to this method of concealing truth. The following epitaph on Fair Rosamond (mistress of our Henry II. about 1173) is a mediæval specimen: "Hie jacet in tombâ Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda; Non redolet, sed olet, quæ redolere solet."

Eolia, in Asia Minor, was colonized by a principal branch of the Hellenic race about 1124 B.C. The Eolians built several large cities both on the mainland and the neighboring islands; Mitylene, in Lesbos, was considered the capital.

Eolian Harp. Its invention is ascribed to Kircher, 1650, who wrote on it, but it was known before. Æolina, a free-reed wind-instrument, invented by Wheatstone in 1829.

Holopile, a hollow ball with an orifice in which a tube might be screwed, was used in the seventeenth century as a boiler for experimental steam-engines; a similar apparatus is described by Vitruvius, first century, A.D.

Aqui, an ancient Italian race, were subdued by the Romans, and their lands annexed, after a severe struggle, 471-302 B.C.

Eras, see Eras.

Aerated Waters. Apparatus for combining gases with water were patented by Thomson in 1807, F. C. Bakewell in 1832 and 1847, Tylor in 1840, and by others.-AERATED BREAD is made by processes patented by Dr. Dauglish, 1856-7.

Aerians, followers of Aerius, a presbyter in the fourth century, who held that there was no distinction between a bishop and a presbyter; that there was no Pasch to be observed by Christians; that the Lent and other fasts should not be observed; and that prayers should not be offered for the dead.-Epiphanius.

Aerolites, see Meteors.

Aeronautics AND Aerostatics, see Balloons and Flying. The Aeronautical Society of Great Britain was established by the duke of Argyll and others, 12 Jan. 1866.

Aerophore, an apparatus invented by M. Denayrouze to enable persons to enter a noxious inflammable atmosphere. It comprises an air-pump, lamp, and flexible tubing. It was tried at Chatham, 12-14 Jan. 1875, and reported successful. A gold medal was awarded to the inventor at the Vienna Exhibition, 1873.

altered in 1702, 1721, 1837, and in April, 1859.—The in-
dulgence was granted to persons who were formerly
Quakers, but who had seceded from that sect, 2 Vict.
1838; and extended to other dissenters by 9 Geo. IV. c.
32, 1828, and 18 & 19 Vict. c. 2, 1855. For Mr. Brad-
laugh's case, see Parliament, 1880–1.

Afghanistan (the Greek Ariana), a large country
in central Asia, successively part of the Persian and
Greek empires. Chief cities, Cabul, Herat, Candahar,
Ghuznee. The tribes are ruled by sirdars.
Early Afghan conquests in India...
Conquests of Genghis Khan about 1221, and by Tamer-
Baber conquered Cabul..

lane..

1200-1290

On his death Afghanistan divided between Persia and

Hindostan.

The Afghans revolt in 1720; invade Persia and take Ispahan; repulsed by Nadir Shah in 1728, who subdues the whole of the country..

1398 1525

... 1738

On his assassination, one of his officers, Ahmed Shah, an Afghan, made Afghanistan independent, and reigned prosperously..

1747-73

Timur Shah (son), succeeds, 1773; rules cruelly; dies, leaving 23 sons..

Zeman becomes ameer, 1793; cripples the power of the Mahmud Shah, son, ameer 1800; deposed for his brother, Suja Shah, 1803; Mahmud restored, Futtih Khan the vizier predominant, 1809; Futtih blinded; Mahmud flees from Cabul and becomes ruler at Herat..

sirdars; blinded and dethroned

Impotent rulers at Cabul; Dost Mahomed Khan becomes

ameer...

He is dethroned by the British, and sent to Calcutta ;
Suja Shah restored.

Aero-steam Engine, see under Air. Esculapius, god of medicine: his worship intro- British occupation of Cabul causes great discontent; induced at Rome, about 291 B.C.

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1793

1800

1816

1826

1838

2 Nov. 1841

surrection; sir Alexander Burnes and 23 others killed,
Akbar Khan, son of Dost Mahomed, head of the rebels;
invites sir Wm. Macnaghten to meet, and assassinates
him and others....
.23 Dec.

The British army retires from Cabul, and is destroyed by
the Ghilzais in the Khyber pass; of 3849 soldiers, and
about 12,000 camp followers, only Dr. Brydone and four
or five natives escaped massacre..
6-13 Jan. 1842

Sir George Pollock forces the Khyber pass; defeats Ak-
bar Khan at Tezeen; captures Cabul and releases lady
Sale and others, 16 Sept.; destroys the great bazaar;
retires.
.....12 Oct.

Aetians, followers of Aetius, an Arian heretic about Dost Mahomed becomes ameer..

351.

Etna, see Elna.

Ætolia, in Greece, a country named after Etolus of Elis, who is said to have accidentally killed a son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, left the Peloponnesus, and settled here. After the ruin of Athens and Sparta, the tolians became the rivals of the Achæans, and were alternately allies and enemies of Rome.

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His treaty of friendship with lord Dalhousie (faithfully kept).. He dies, leaving 16 sons; appointing as his successor Shere Ali, the third son, 9 June; who is much opposed by his brothers, especially by Ufzul, the eldest son (and his son Abdul-Rahman, or Abdur-Rahman), Azim, Ameen, and Shureef; yet is recognized by them, Sept. 1863 Unsuccessful insurrection of Ufzul and Azim; Azim flees to British territories, 16 May; Ufzul reconciled to Shere Ali.... .2 June, 1864 Insurrection of Abdul Rahman; Ufzul imprisoned..Aug. Shere Ali enters Cabul. 14 Nov. 66 Azim and his confederates defeated at Kujhbaz, near Khelat-i-Ghilzye, by Shere Ali (whose gallant son is killed), 6 June; he enters Candahar.........14 June, 1865 Azim joins his nephew Abdul-Rahman; defection of Mahomed Rufeek from Ibrahim (Shere Ali's son) weakly ruling Cabul; it surrenders to Azim... .2 March, 1866 Shere Ali rouses himself from his grief; raises an army; some of his treacherous friends return to him; he is defeated at Sheikhabad, and flees to Candahar .10 May 46 Ufzul (sensual and easy) and Azim (cruel and tyrannical) rule at Cabul.. ..May, et seq. Azim and Abdul-Rahman defeat Shere Ali at Kujlbaz, 17 Jan; he flees to Candahar; shut out, flees to Herat held by his son Yakoob. .Jan. 1867 His army again defeated and his general and brother, Fyz Mahomed, killed.. 17 Sept. Ufzul dies; Az m sole ruler at Cabul. Oct. 66 146 He quarrels with Abdul Rahman; who leaves him, and refuses to help him........ March, 1868 April, .8 Sept.

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Affinity. Marriage within certain degrees of kin-Yakoob defeats Azim's troops, and enters Candahar dred was prohibited in almost every age and country, but has yet taken place to a considerable extent. The Jewish law is given in Lev. xviii. (1490 B.C.). In the English Prayer-book the table restricting marriage within certain degrees was set forth by authority, 1563. Prohibited marriages were adjudged to be incestuous and unlawful by the 99th canon, in 1603. All marriages within the forbidden degrees are declared to be absolutely void by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 54, 1835; see Marriage (of Wife's Sister). The prohibited degrees were set forth in 25 Hen. VIII. c. 22, 1533-4.

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..Jan. 1869

ey; the attempts of Abdul Rahman repulsed, Nov., Dec. Shere Ali totally defeats him and Azimi (who dies soon after)... Shere Ali honorably received at Umballah by the viceroy, the earl of Mayo, and receives a subsidy, 27 March et seq. .about June, 1870 ....6 May,

His son Yakoob rebels; captures Herat...

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The limits of his territories defined.. Feramoz Khan, his father's general, assassinated. June, 1871 Yakoob reconciled to his father through lord Mayo, July; made governor of Herat; soon rebels.... ..Sept. Affirmation; sec Quakers. The affirmation was Uslum, murderer of Feramoz, killed in prison......Oct.

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Shere Ali agrees to new boundaries, and receives another British subsidy, Oct.; nominates his youngest son, Abdoola Jan, his successor, to the great dissatisfaction of his older son Yakoob.. ...Dec. 1873 Yakoob Khan imprisoned by his father.... .about Dec. 1874 Shere Ali refusing to allow a British resident, the subsidy withheld; he raises an army, and is said to promote disaffection to the British. .1877-8 Death of the heir Abdoola Jan.... ..17 Aug. 1878 Stolietoff, a Russian envoy, favorably received at Cabul, June; a treaty signed; Russia to be the guardian of the ameer. ...Aug. The nawab Gholam Hussein Khan sent as envoy to the ameer with letters from the viceroy (16 and 24 Aug.), 30 Aug.; dismissed with presents; intercourse with the British declined... Sept. A mission with military escort under sir Neville B. Chamberlain, commander of the Madras army, starts from Peshawur. ..21 Sept. At Ali Musjid, a fort in the Khyber pass, major Cavagnari and an advance party are threatened with attack if they proceed, 22 Sept.; they retire to Peshawur, 23, 24 Sept.; Gholam Hussein sent with an ultimatum (answer required before 20 Nov.).. ..28 Oct. British army formed in three divisions: at Quettah, Peshawur, and Kuram (34,730 natives, 12,740 Europeaus).... ....about 16 Nov. Despatch from lord Cranbrook supporting the viceroy, 18 Nov. No answer received from the ameer; the army advances, 21 Nov. Ali Musjid shelled and occupied by the British; 21 guns taken; major Birch and lieut. Fitzgerald and about 35 men killed... ..22 Nov. The viceroy's proclamation to the Afghans issued. 23 Nov. Occupation of Dakka and Pisheen, 23 Nov.; of Kuram fort.... .25 Nov. Kuddum burned to punish marauding hillmen....1 Dec. Gen. Roberts victorious at Peiwar pass (which see). 2 Dec. 66 Evasive reply of the ameer, dated 19 Nov., received

The British occupy Jellalabad..

Shere Ali flees from Cabul to Balkh, 13 Dec.; Yakoob Khan assumes command; the Russian mission withdraws.... ..Dec.

etc....

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Gen. Roberts proclaims annexation of Kuram district, ..26 Dec. He enters the Khoost territory, 3 Jan.; defeats the Mangals near Matoon. .7 Jan. 1879 Candahar abandoned 6 Jan.; entered by general Stewart unopposed..

Wali Mahomed, a relative of Shere Ali, joins the British,

gen. Hills to be military governor, with Gholam Hussein Khan.... 14 Oct. 1879 Great explosions (supposed treacherous) in the Bala Hissar; destruction of much arms and ammunition; capt. Shafto and about 20 others missing. Abdication of Yakoob Khan announced..

.......16 Oct. ..19 Oct. 5 prisoners (mollahs and others) hanged as murderers of major Cavagnari and others.... 20-24 Oct. Sahib Jan, a freebooter, with a strong force of Taraki Ghilzais, defeated and killed by gen. Hughes at Shahjui, near Candahar... .24 Oct.

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Attack of Afghan chiefs on col. Norman repulsed at Jagdalak... 29 Dec. Ghazni seized and held for Musa Khan, as the new ameer, by Mohammed Jan... ...about 10 Jan. 1880 Gen. Roberts proclaims an amnesty with few exceptions; the hill tribes generally subdued.. ...about 6 Jan. Mohmands and other tribes defeated in an attack near Dakka.... 15 Jan. Correspondence with Russia; papers found in Cabul (to be kept secret).. .6 Feb. Musa Khan and chiefs at Ghazni submit......21 March, Mahomed Jan defeated and killed, fighting with Hazaris... ..about 3 April, A camp at Duwai attacked by Pathans; garrison killed 16 April, Shere Ali, cousin of the late ameer, made wali or gov ernor of Candabar by the British (see Candahar). April, Gen. sir Donald Stewart defeats a furious attack of Ghil zais at Ahmad Khel, 19 April; again near Ghazni, 23 April, Col. Jenkins, at Char-asiab, attacked by 4000 Logaris; resists till reinforced by gen. Macpherson; totally defeats them... ...25 April, Sir D. Stewart takes chief command at Cabul.....2 May, Alleged defeats of Safis and Ghazis near Jellalabad, 19, 22 May, Gen. Burrows (with about 2400 men) sent from Bombay ⚫ towards Candahar.... .1 July, The troops of the inefficient wali of Candahar, Shere Ali, revolt and join Ayoob Khan, about.... 14 July, Gen. Burrows at Maiwand, near Kusck-i-Nakhud (which see).. ..17 July, Abdul-Rahman, or Abdur-Rahman (see above, 1863 et seq.), recognized as ameer at Cabul by the British, and proclaimed. 22 July, Ayoob Khan (son of the late ameer, Shere Ali), governor of Herat, marches upon Candahar with about 12,000 men and 20 guns; defeats the attack of gen. Burrows after severe conflicts; heavy loss on both sides; many officers of 66th regiment killed..... 27 July, Candahar citadel held by British with about 4000 men, 28 July, ..9 Aug.

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..31 March,

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The Alizais defeated in an attack... Death of Shere Ali, the ameer (announced). About 46 of the 10th hussars drowned by current while crossing the Cabul river, 10 p.m.. Gen. Gough, with the 10th hussars and others, defeats about 5000 Khugianis near Futtehabad; gallant major Wigram Batty killed.. .2 April, Yakoob Khan, son of the late ameer, arrives at Gandamak to negotiate, 8 May; recognized as ameer..9 May, Treaty of peace signed at Gandamak (the British to occupy Khyber pass, and the Kuram and Pisheen valleys; to have a resi lent at Cabul; and to pay an annual subsidy of 60,000l. to the ameer), 26 May; ratified 30 May; the British troops retire... .8 June, Sir Louis Cavagnari and escort honorably received in Cabul.... ..24 July," Thanks of the house of lords voted to the viceroy, officers, and men... 4 Aug. Several regiments of Afghan soldiers arrive in Cabul from Herat; about 13 Aug., aided by the populace, they besiege the British residents, who, after a brave resistance, are massacred (including sir L. Cavagnari, Mr. Jenkyns, his secretary, lieut. Hamilton, and Dr. Ambrose Kelly), with about 26 native cavalry and 50 infantry; a few natives escape... .3, 4 Sept. Gen. Roberts marches towards Cabul......6 Sept. et seq. Mutiny at Herat; military and civil governors killed, 5 Sept. Repulse of an attack on Baker's entrenchments at Shutargardan..... ........19 Sept. A British convoy attacked by Mongols, near Shutargardan; 8 sepoys and 15 muleteers killed; mules taken, 22 Sept. Gen. Baker reaches Kushi 24 Sept.; receives the ameer Yakoob and his son, his general Daoud, and suite, 27 Sept. Gen. Roberts arrives at Cabul, 28 Sept.; occupies Dakka, (6 29 Sept. Attack on British camp at Shutargardan repulsed.2 Oct. Battle of Charasiab; severe conflict with Afghans before Cabul; capt. Young, Dr. Duncan, lieut. Fergusson, and about 70 killed and wounded.... ......6 Oct. The enemy decamps; about 98 guns abandoned; pursued by cavalry; small parties only overtaken.8-9 Oct. Gen. Roberts visits the abandoned Bala Hissar, 11 Oct.; enters Cabul, 12 Oct.; Jellalabad occupied by Gough, 14 Oct.

Gen. Roberts's proclamation; heavy fine; martial law;

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Ineffectual sortie from Candahar, under gen. Primrose, against Deh Kwajee village, with heavy loss on both sides; gen. Brooke, col. Newport, majors Vandaleur and French, capt. Cruickshank, lieut. Marsh, and rev. Mr. Gordon, and 180 men killed.. 16 Aug. Ayoob Khan's army (strengthened by Ghilzais) about 20,000 about 25 Aug.; he retires from Candahar about 30 Aug. Gen. Roberts arrives at Candahar, 31 Aug; declines Ayoob's terms; defeats and disperses his army at Mazra near the Argandab; and captures his camp at Baba Wali Kotal (see Mazra)....

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1878 published; explained by Russia as relating to probable war in the East... ..9, 10 Feb. 1881 Thanks of parliament voted to gen. Roberts and the army in both houses.. ..5 May, Prospect of war between Ayoob Khan of Herat and Abdur-Rahman of Cabul... .May, June, Conflicts between partisans of the ameer and Ayoob Khan; the latter defeated... .3, 11 June, Ayoob Khan defeats the ameer's army under GholamHyder at Karez-i-atta, 26 July; enters Candahar

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30 July, Africa, called Libya by the Greeks, one of the three parts of the ancient world, and the greatest peninsula of the globe; said to have been first peopled by Ham. For its history, see Egypt, Cape, Carthage, Cyrene, Abyssinia, Algiers, Morocco, Ashantee, South Africa, etc.

Carthage subdued by the Romans, 146 B.C.; other provinces gained by Pompey, 82.

Revolts subdued by Diocletian, A. D. 296; by Theodosius, 373. N. Africa conquered by the Vandals under Genseric, 429-35; reconquered by Belisarius, 533-55.

The Saracens subdue the north of Africa, 639–709.
Cape of Good Hope discovered by Diaz, 1487.

Livingstone left Zanzibar to continue his search for the sources of the Nile, March, 1866.

[See his narrative below.}

Reports of the murder of Livingstone near Lake Nyassa, in Sept. 1866-March, 1867; doubted July, 1867.

Expedition of E. D. Young in search of Livingstone, sailed 9 July, 1867, returned and reported to the Royal Geographical Society his conviction that Livingstone was alive, 27 Jan. 1868.

Letter from Dr. Livingstone dated Bembo, 2 March, 1867; heard of down to Dec. 1867.

His despatch to lord Clarendon dated 7 July, 1868; read to the Letter dated 30 May, 1869, published Dec. 1869. Royal Geographical Society, 8 Nov. 1869. Uncredited reports of his murder by negroes, Jan.; his probable safety reported by Dr. Kirk, 22 June; said to be at MoExpedition of sir Samuel Baker to put down slave-trade on zambique, Nov. 1870. the Upper Nile (see Egypt), Jan. 1870.

Expedition in search of Livingstone, under lieut. Dawson, organized by the Royal Geographical Society; started 9 Feb.

1872.

[It returned on hearing that Stanley had found Livingstone.]

Dutch Guinea settlements purchased and transferred (see El mina) 6 April, 1872.

Reports current that Livingstone is alive, May, June, 1872.

Vasco de Gama doubles the Cape and explores the coast, 19 Expedition sent in search of Livingstone by Mr. James GorΝον. 1497.

Portuguese settlements begun, 1450.

English merchants visit Guinea in 1550; and Elizabeth granted a patent to an African company in 1588.

Dutch colony at the Cape founded, 1650.
Capt. Stubbs sailed up the Gambia, 1723.
Bruce commenced his travels in 1768.
Sierra Leone settled by the English, 1787.

Mungo Park made his first voyage to Africa, 22 May, 1795; his
second, 30 Jan. 1804, and never returned; see Park.
Africa visited by Salt, 1805 and 1809; Burckhardt, 1812;
Campbell, 1813; Hornemann, 1816; Denham and Clapper-
ton, 1822; Laing, 1826; the brothers Lander, 1830.
The great Niger expedition to start a colony in Central Africa
(for which parliament voted 60,000l.), consisting of the Al-
bert, Wilberforce, and Soudan steamships, commenced the
ascent of the Niger, 20 Aug. 1841; when they reached Id-
dah, fever broke out among the crews, and they were suc-
cessively obliged to return, the Albert having ascended the
river to Egga, 320 miles from the sea, 28 Sept. The expedi-
tion was relinquished owing to disease, heat, and hardships,
and all the vessels had cast anchor at Clarence Cove, Fer-
nando Po, 17 Oct. 1841.

James Richardson explored the great Sahara in 1845-6, and in 1849 (by direction of the Foreign Office) he left England to explore central Africa, accompanied by Drs. Barth and Overweg. Richardson died 4 March, 1851; and Overweg died 27 Sept. 1852.

Dr. Vögel sent out with reinforcements to Dr. Barth, 20 Feb. 1853; in April, 1857, said to have been assassinated. Dr. Barth returned to England, and received the Royal Geographical Society's medal, 16 May, 1856. His travels were published in 5 vols. in 1858.

In

Dr. David Livingstone, a missionary traveller, returned to England in Dec. 1856, after an absence of 16 years, during which he traversed a large part of the heart of S. Africa, and walked about 11.000 miles, principally over country hitherto unexplored. His book was published in Nov. 1857. Feb. 1858, he was appointed British consul for the Portuguese possessions in Africa, and left England shortly after. Du Chaillu's travels in central Africa, 1856-9, created much controversy, 1861.

Second expedition of Dr. Livingstone, March, 1858. Capts. Speke and Grant announce the discovery of a source of the Nile in lake Victoria Nyanza, 23 Feb. 1863.

[Capt. Speke was accidentally shot by his own gun while alone near Bath, 15 Sept. 1864.] Some Dutch ladies unsuccessfully explore the White Nile, and undergo many privations, July, 1863-4. (One Miss Tinne said to have been killed; reported 5 Sept. 1869.) The Universities Mission to E. central Africa," consisting of Charles F. Mackenzie, bishop of central Africa, and six clergymen and others, started Dec. 1860, and arrived at the Zambesi, in Feb. 1861. All died from privations and disease except two, who returned in 1864. The bishop died 31 Jan. 1862; succeeded by Dr. Tozer.

Du Chaillu starts on a fresh expedition, 6 Aug. 1863; after being robbed, and undergoing many privations, returned to London near the end of 1865. He gave an account of his journey at a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, 8 Jan. 1866.

Dr. Livingstone returns 23 July, 1864.

Death of Dr. W. B. Baikie, at Sierra Leone, 30 Nov. 1864. [He was sent as special envoy to the negro tribes near the Niger by the Foreign Office, about 1854. He opened commercial relations with central Africa.]

Mr. (afterwards sir) Samuel Baker discovered a lake, supposed to be another source of the Nile, which he named Lake Nyauza Albert, 14 March, 1864.

Dr. Livingstone appointed British consul for inner Africa, 24 March, 1865.

Narrative of Livingstone's Zambesi expedition, 1858-64, published 1866.

don Bennett, proprietor of the New York Herald, at a cost of about 80007.:

Mr. Henry M. Stanley, chief of the expedition, left Zanzibar, and, after much opposition from the native chiefs, accidentally fell in with Livingstone at Ujiji, near Unyanyembe, 10 Nov. 1871, and remained with him till 14 March, 1872, when he brought away his diary and other documents. Mr. Stanley reported that Livingstone had arrived at Ujiji in bad condition, having been robbed and deserted by his attendants. Much controversy ensued between Mr. Stanley, the members of lieut. Dawson's expedition, Dr. Livingstone, Dr. Kirk, the Royal Geographical Society, and others, Aug. -Oct. 1872. Letter from Dr. Livingstone, at Ujiji, dated Nov. 1871, to Mr. Bennett (printed in New York Herald 26 July, and reprinted in the Times 27 July, 1872). He describes his explorations and his painful journey to Ujiji; his meeting with Mr. Stanley; and he speaks of the Nile springs being about 600 miles south of the most southerly part of lake Victoria Ny. anza; and also of about 700 miles of water-shed in central Africa, of which he had explored about 600; and of the convergence of the water-shed first into four, and then into two, mighty rivers in the great Nile valley (?) between 10° and 120 S. lat. Second letter (dated Feb. 1872) describes the horrors of the slave-trade in E. Africa, printed in the Times 29 July, 1872.

Livingstone's despatches, dated 1 and 15 Nov. 1871, received by the Foreign Oflice, 1 Aug.; letter dated 1 July received 2 Oct. 1872.

Mr. Stanley described his discovery of Livingstone to the British Association at Brighton in presence of the ex-emperor and empress of the French, 16 Aug., and received a gold snuffbox from the queen about 30 Aug. 1872. Livingstone died of dysentery in Ilala, central Africa; his pupil Jacob Wainwright, a young negro missionary, present, 1 May, 1873; his remains interred in Westminster Abbey, 18 April; his last journals published Dec. 1874. New Expedition, under sir Bartle Frere, to Zanzibar, to suppress the E. African slave-trade; lieut. Verney Lovett Cameron's offer to aid in the furtherance of Livingstone's expedition was accepted; sailed 20 Nov. 1872; see Zanzibar.

Expedition to explore the upper part of the Congo (Mr. Young, of Kelly, to subscribe 2000. Royal Geographical Society to supplement it), proposed Nov. 1872.

Lieut. Verney Cameron, after the finding of Livingstone, continued his explorations, 1872-3.

Leaving Ujiji, 14 May, 1874, he followed Livingstone's route; explored 1200 miles of fertile country; arriving at Portuguese settlements, 4 Nov. 1875.

He was received by Royal Geographical Society, and gave account of his journey, 11 April, 1876.

Expedition of Mr. H. M. Stanley (supported by Daily Telegraph and New York Herald); he surveyed lake Victoria Nyanza (230 miles by 180), 1875, well and successful; last letter dated 24 April, 1876.

Stanley reports survey of lake Tanganyika; and states that he left Ujiji and crossed Africa from east to west, and identified the Lualaba with the Congo river, which has an uninterrupted course of over 1400 miles, 24 Aug. 1876-6 Aug. 1877. Arrives at Cape Town, 21 Oct. 1877; in London 22 Jan.; published "Through the Dark Continent," May, 1878. Italian expedition under marchese Antinori well received by king of Scida; announced 2 Dec. 1876; his death reported, Nov. 1877.

Portuguese government grant 20,000l. for expedition into the interior, announced Dec. 1876.

Dr. Güssfeld, a German, after his exploration into S. W. Central Africa, 1873, declared the difficulties insuperable, 1875. Mr. H. M. Stanley, with an international Belgian expedition, explored the Congo, 1879-80.

ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY's successful expedition into E. Africa, under Mr. A. Keith Johnston, leaves England 14 Nov. 1878, starts from Zanzibar about 14 May, 1879. Mr.

Johnston dies 28 June; succeeded by Joseph Thomson, who returns to England Aug. 1880.

Age. In Greece and Rome twenty-five was full age

Alleged massacre of col. Flatters's party (American) by Toua- for both sexes, but a greater age was requisite for the

regs, 16 Feb. 1881.

AFRICAN ASSOCIATION, for promoting the exploration of central
Africa, was formed in June, 1788, principally by sir Joseph
Banks; and under its auspices many additions were made
to African geography by Ledyard, Park, Burckhardt, Horne-
mann, etc. It merged into the Royal Geographical Society,
July, 1831.
AFRICAN CHURCH. In 1866 Robert Gray, bishop of Capetown
(in consequence of a decision of the privy council; see
Church of England), established synods of the "Church of
South Africa."

AFRICAN COMPANY (merchants trading to Africa) arose out of
granted to a joint-stock company in 1618; a second com-
pany was created in 1631; a third corporation in 1662; an-
other was formed by letters patent in 1672; remodelled in
1695. In 1821 the company was abolished.
AFRICAN EXPLORATION FUND, founded by Royal Geographical
Society, May, 1877.

an association in London formed in 1588. A charter was

AFRICAN INSTITUTION, founded in London in 1807, for the abolition of the slave-trade and the civilization of Africa. Many schools have been established with success, particu

larly at Sierra Leone.

African Confederation, see South African Confederation.

Agapæ (ayán, Greek for love, charity), "feasts of charity," referred to Jude 12, and described by Tertullian, of which the first Christians of all ranks as one family partook, as Christ did with his disciples. Disorders creeping in, these feasts were forbidden to be celebrated in churches by the councils of Laodicea (366) and Carthage (390). They are still recognized by the Greek church, and are held in their original form weekly by the Glasites or Sandemanians, and in some degree by the Moravians, Wesleyans, and others.

holding certain offices: e. g. thirty for tribunes, fortythree for consuls. In England the minority of a male terminates at twenty-one, and of a female in some cases, as that of a queen, at eighteen. In 1547, the majority of Edward VI. was, by the will of his father, fixed at eighteen years; previously to completing which age, his father, Henry VIII., had assumed the reins of government, in 1509.—A male of twelve may take the oath of allegiance, at fourteen he may consent to a marriage or choose a guardian, at seventeen he may be an executor, and at twenty-one he is of age; but according to the statute of wills, 7 Will. IV. and 1 Vict. c. 26, 1837, no will made by any person under the age of twenty-one years shall be valid. A female at twelve may consent to a marriage, at fourteen she may choose a guardian, and at twenty-one she is of age. In the United States the legal age of majority is twenty-one years, but in some of the states eighteen is the legal age for women. Men of eighteen and women of sixteen may devise property by will, and at fourteen and twelve, respectively, they may contract marriage. The president and vicepresident of the United States must be thirty-five years of age, senators thirty, and members of the House of Representatives twenty-five.

Aged Pilgrims' Friend Society, founded 1807; asylums, 1826 and 1871.

Agincourt, or AZINCOUR (N. France), a village where Henry V. of England, with about 9000 men, defeated about 60,000 French on St. Crispin's day, 25 Oct. 1415. Of the French, there were, according to some acAgapemone (Greek, the abode of love), an es- counts, 10,000 killed, including the dukes of Alençon, tablishment at Charlinch, near Bridgewater, Somerset-Brabant, and Bar, the archbishop of Sens, one marshal, shire, founded in 1845, where Henry James Prince* and his deluded followers, formerly persons of property, lived in common, professing to devote themselves to innocent recreation and to maintain spiritual marriage. The Agapemone is described by Mr. Hepworth Dixon in his "Spiritual Wives," published in Jan. 1868. Meetings of the sect were held at Hamp, near Bridgewater,

Dec. 1872.

Agar-town, the name given to a district in St. Pancras parish, N. London. It consisted of hovels erected on the site of the grounds of councillor Agar, after 1841, which, from their filthy and uncivilized condition, were termed by Charles Dickens, in 1851, the English Connemara. The entire district was cleared by the Midland Railway Company.

thirteen earls, ninety-two barons, and 1500 knights; and 14,000 prisoners, among whom were the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentlemen. The English lost the duke of York, the earl of Suffolk, and about 20 others. St. Rémy asserts, with more probability, that the English lost 1600 men. Henry V. soon after obtained the kingdom of France.

Agincourt iron-clad, see Navy, 1871.

Agitators (or Adjutators), officers appointed by the Parliamentary army in 1647 to take care of its interests: each troop or company had two. The general, Cromwell, At a review he seized the ringleaders of a mutiny, shot was eventually obliged to repress their seditious power. one instantly, in the presence of his companions and the forces on the ground, and thus restored discipline.Hume. Daniel O'Connell, the agitator of Ireland, was born in 1775. He began to agitate at the elections in 1826; was elected for Clare, 5 July, 1828; the election being declared void, he was re-elected 30 July, 1829. After the passing of the Catholic Emancipation bill, he agitated in vain for the repeal of the union, 1834 to 1843. He died 15 May, 1847.-Richard Cobden and John Bright were the chief Anti-corn-law agitators, 1841-5. 1490-1014 Mr. Bright became a Reform agitator in 1866.

Age. Chronologers have divided the time between the creation and the birth of Christ into ages. Hesiod (about 850 B.C.) described the Golden, Silver, and Iron ages; see Dark Ages.

FIRST AGE (from the Creation to the Deluge).....
SECOND AGE (to the coming of Abraham into Ca-
naan)...

THIRD AGE (to the Exodus from Egypt)..
FOURTH AGE (to the founding of Solomon's Tem-
ple)..

FIFTH AGE (to the capture of Jerusalem).
SIXTH AGE (to the birth of Christ).
SEVENTH AGE, to the present time.

Brazen,

B. C. 4004-2349

2348-1922

1921-1491

1014-588

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Prince was born in 1811; educated for the medical profession and licensed to practise, 1832; gave it up for the church and entered St. David's college, Lampeter, and there commenced ultra-revivalist movements in 1836; and finally claimed to be an incarnation of the Deity, with corresponding authority over his followers. On 22 May, 1850, Thomas Robinson sought to recover the possession of his child from the care of its mother (from whom he had separated); the application was refused by the vice-chancellor, to save the child from the pollution of the parent's teaching."-On 21 Aug. 1858, Miss Louisa Jane Nottidge died, having transferred her property to Mr. H. J. Prince. Her brother, Mr. Nottidge, by an action, recovered from Prince 57287., as having been fraudulently obtained. Extraordinary disclosures were made during the trial, 25 July, 1860. In the autumn of 1860, the Rev. Mr. Price, after several vain attempts, succeeded in rescuing his wife from the Agapemone. They had both been early supporters of it.

Agnadello (N.E. Italy). Here Louis XII. of France gained a great victory over the Venetians, some of whose troops were accused of cowardice and treachery; 14 May, 1509. The conflict is also termed the battle of the Rivolta.

Agnoitæ (from ayvoia, Greek, ignorance). I. A sect founded by Theophronius of Cappadocia about 370; said to have doubted the omniscience of God. II. The followers of Themistius of Alexandria, about 530, who held peculiar views as to the body of Christ, and doubted his divinity.

Agnostics, name given to philosophers who assert that we have no knowledge but what we acquire by means of our senses, about 1876. Mr. Herbert Spencer and Mr. John Fiske are eminent agnostics.

Agonistici (from ȧywv, Greek, a conflict), also

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