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termed circutores, a branch of the Donatists (which see) | in the fourth century. They preached with great boldness, and incurred severe persecution.

Agra (N.W. India), founded by Akbar in 1566, was the capital of the Great Mogul; see Mausoleums. In 1658 Aurungzebe removed to Delhi.-The fortress of Agra, "the key of Hindostan," in the war with the Mahrattas surrendered to the British forces, under gen. Lake, 17 Oct. 1803, after one day's siege: 162 pieces of ordnance and 240,000l. were captured.-In June, 1857, the city was abandoned to the mutineers by the Europeans, who took refuge in the fort, from which they were rescued by major Montgomery and colonel Greathed. Visit of the prince of Wales, 25 Jan. 1876.-Allahabad was made capital of the N.W. provinces of India, instead of Agra, in 1861.

Agram (formerly Zagrab), a city of Croatia, Hungary, residence of the ban; suffered much by earthquakes, 9-12 Nov. 1880.

Agrarian Law (Agraria lex) decreed an equal division among the Roman people of all the lands acquired by conquest, limiting the acres which each person should enjoy. It was first proposed by the consul Spurius Cassius, 486 B.C., and occasioned his judicial murder when he went out of office in 485.-An agrarian law was passed by the tribune Licinius Stolo, 376; and for proposing further amendments Tiberius Gracchus in 133, and his brother Cornelius in 121, were murdered. Livius Drusus, a tribune, was murdered for the same cause, 91. Julius Cæsar propitiated the plebeians by passing an agrarian law in 59.-In modern times the term has been misinterpreted to signify a division of the lands of the rich among the poor, frequently proposed by demagogues, such as Gracchus Babeuf, editor of the Tribun du Peuple, in 1794. In 1796 he conspired against the Directory with the view of obtaining a division of property, was condemned, and killed himself, 27 May,

1797.

Agricola's Wall, see Roman Walls.

Agricultural Children Act prohibits employment of children under eight years of age, and provides for the education of older children, 5 Aug. 1873.

Agricultural Holdings Act, passed 13 Aug. 1875, relates to compensations of landlords and tenants, for improvements, etc.

Agriculture. "Abel was a keeper of sheep, but Cain was a tiller of the ground," Gen. iv. 2. The Athenians asserted that the art of sowing corn began with them; and the Cretans, Sicilians, and Egyptians made the same claim.

Cato the Censor (died 149 B.C.) and Varro (died 28 B.C.) were eminent Roman writers on agriculture.

Virgil's Georgics, 30 B. C. Agriculture in England improved by the Romans after A. D. 44.

Fitzherbert's "Book of Husbandry," printed 1524.
Tusser's Five Hundred Points of Husbandry," 1562.
Blythe's Improver," 1649.

Hartlib's "Legacy," 1650.

Jethro Tull's "Horse hoeing Husbandry," 1701.

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chartered, 1845.

Suffolk Agricultural College at Bury St. Edmunds opened 1874. Other colleges opened.

British Dairy Farmers' Association.-Inaugurated; first show Royal Agricultural Benevolent Institution.-It relieves farmopened at Agricultural Hall, London, 24-28 Oct. 1876. ers and their widows and orphans; founded chiefly by Mr. Mechi, 1860.

The Associated Agriculturists of Great Britain, a limited company, proposed April, 1881.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.-Sir Humphry Davy delivered lectures on this subject (afterwards published), at the instance of the Board of Agriculture, in 1812; but it excited little attention till the publication of Liebig's work in 1840, which made a powerful impression. Boussingault's "Economie Rurale," an equally important work, appeared in 1844. The immoderate expectations from this study having been somewhat disappointed, a partial reaction took place. Liebig's "Letters on Agriculture" appeared in 1859. AGRICULTURAL GANGS.-In the spring of 1867, most painful exposures were made of the prevalence of much cruelty and immorality in the gang system (in which boys and girls are employed) in several of the castern and midland counties; and, in consequence, an act was passed 20 Aug. for regu lating these gangs, licensing gang-masters, etc.

A Union of Agricultural Laborers, managed chiefly by Joseph Arch, formerly a laborer, afterwards a Methodist preacher, was inaugurated at Leamington, Warwickshire, 29 March, 1872. The movement spread, being countenanced by Auberon Herbert, M. P., and others. The Union met in London, Arch re-elected president, 16, 17 May, 1877. Lock-out of agricultural laborers belonging to the Union (lasted 18 weeks, costing the Union much money), began at Alderton, Suffolk, March, 1872.

About the end of the eighteenth century, fallowing was grad-Dispute between Lincolnshire farmers and laborers settled, ually superseded by turnips and green crops.

In Aug. 1855, a committee presented a report on the best mode of obtaining accurate agricultural statistics. There were, in 1831, 1,055,982 agricultural laborers in Great Britain, and in Ireland 1,131,715.

Acreage of crops, and number of cattle, sheep, and pigs in Great Britain and Ireland, beginning with 1866, published in the annual "Statistical Abstract," since 1869. It was reckoned by the Agricultural Committee that the cultivation of waste lands would yield above 20,000,000l. a year. It was calculated in 1854 that there were in England 32,160,000 acres in cultivation, of the annual value of 37,412,000l. Since that time, much land has been brought into cultivation; see Wheat.

"History of Agriculture and Prices in England (1259-1400)," by prof. James T. Rogers, published June, 1866. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. The earliest mentioned in the British Isles was the Society of Improvers of Agriculture in Scotland, instituted in 1723. A Dublin Agricultural So

18-20 May; Suffolk and Norfolk farmers refuse compromise about 25 May; the Union ceased to support the locked-out laborers, leaving them to emigration, or to seek employment, 27 July, 1872.

The agitation subsided; the laborers were employed autumn, 1875; agricultural return for Great Britain, 1873; reported steady increase in prosperity, 1875.

A partial strike and lock-out of laborers in Kent and Sussex,

Oct.-Dec. 1878.

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At that period it was computed that the soil of the United Kingdom was annually cropped in the following propor

tions:

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ACRES.

7,000,000
1.950,000
6,500,000
1,150,000
1,750,000

2,800,000

60,000
20,000

110,000

Grand total..

31,925,233 25,863,955
6,343,269 15,475,300

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In addition to these are the grass crop, market gardening, fruit products, sugar cane, rice, and several minor crops. The dairy industry is a manufacture founded on and mainly included in grass and grain production. Meat products are also secondary, giving increased value to the primary products from which they are made. An exact estimate of all farm production has never been made and is difficult to calculate with close precision, but it is probable that the figures given above are about two-thirds of the real value of the primary products of American agriculture.

Agricultural Hall, Islington, N. London, chiefly 100,000 for the meetings of the Smithfield Club. The founda21,000,000 tion-stone was laid by the president, lord Berners, 5 Nov. 2,000,000 1861. The hall has been much used for industrial ex2,100,000 hibitions, public meetings, equestrian and pedestrian per46,540,000 formances, concerts, etc.

9,252,784 3,562,434 15,964,553
1,481,525 12,006, 191
3,586,730 16,577,740
1,498, 719

Corn
Crops.

Green
Crops.

Grasses,

etc.

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1866. Great Britain.. Ireland

2,174,033

1870. Great Britain. Ireland..

9,548,041

2,173,109

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[Most of the other states now have them.]

First cotton (8 bales) sent from the United States to England,
and seized by custom-house on the ground that the United
States cannot have produced so much, 1784.

First recorded United States thresher patent, 1791.
Thence to 1810 were granted in the United States 30 patents
for reapers; from 1810 to 1835, 240 more; and many have
been granted since.

Whitney's cotton-gin invented, 1793.

First cast-iron plough patent issued to Newbold of New Jersey,

1797.

Jefferson investigates scientifically the Mould Ward question,

1798.

First Agricultural Exhibition in the United States at George-
town, D.C., May 10, 1810.

First useful mowing-machine (Manning's) patented in the
United States, 1831.

First useful reaper patents in the United States, Schnebley's
and Hussey's, both of Maryland, granted, 1833.
Guano begins to come into use about 1840.

Yale College Agricultural Department established, 1852.
World's Fair, New York, promotes use of agricultural ma-
chinery, 1853.

Great trial of threshing, reaping, and mowing machines in
France the American machines gaining a complete vic-
tory, 1855.

The United States Government Agricultural Department es-
tablished by an act of Congress, May 15, 1862.
First great cotton fair held at Atlanta, Ga., 1881.

The following table, furnished by the Department of Agricult-
ure at Washington, shows the acreage, quantity, and money
value of the principal crops of the United States for the
year 1880.

It was opened for an exhibition of dogs, 24 June, 1862; horses
and donkeys exhibited, July, 1864, and annually since.
First Smithfield annual cattle show here, 6 Dec. 1862.
A great reform demonstration was made here, 30 July, 1866.
Grand ball to the Belgian visitors, volunteers, and garde
civique; prince of Wales present, 18 July, 1867.
Excellent horse-shows held here, May, 1868 et seq.

Theatrical bull-fights here stopped, on account of cruelty, 28
March, 1870.

Workmen's International Exhibition opened by the prince of
Wales, 16 July, 1870.

National Exhibition of machinery, appliances, manufactures,
and produce, opened 29 Sept. 1879.

Exhibition by the building trades, opened 12 April, 1880.
International food exhibition, opened 13 Oct. 1880.
Milling exhibition (under direction of National Association of
British and Irish Millers), 10-18 May, 1881.

Agrigentum (now Girgenti), a city of Sicily,
built about 582 B.C. It was governed by tyrants from
566 to 470; among these were-Phalaris (see Brazen
Bull); Alcamanes; Theron, who, with his stepfather
Gelon, defeated the Carthaginians at Himera, 480; and
Thrasydæus, his son, expelled in 470, when a republic
was established. It was taken by the Carthaginians in
405 B.C., and held, except during short intervals, till
gained by the Romans in 262 B.C. From A.D. 825 till
1086 it was held by the Saracens.
Ahmednuggur (W. India), once capital of a state
After having
founded by Ahmed Shah, about 1493.
fallen into the hands of the Moguls and the Mahrattas, it
was taken from the latter by Arthur Wellesley, 12 Aug.
1803, and restored to the British dominions, June, 1817.
Aid, see Ayde.

Aid to the Sick and Wounded, NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR. On 4 Aug. 1870, soon after the breakingout of the Franco-German war, a meeting was held in London, which established this society under the rules of the Geneva Convention (which see).

The queen, patron; the prince of Wales, president; col.
Loyd-Lindsay, chairman of committees; active sup-
porters, duke of Manchester, earl of Shaftesbury, lords
Overstone and Bury, sir Harry Verney, gen. sir John
Burgoyne, surgeon-gen. Longmore, and capt. Douglas
Galton. The operations were chiefly directed by capt.
Henry Brackenbury at the seat of war, and by Mr. John
Furley and gen. sir Vincent Eyre.

A fruitless meeting to promote the incorporation of the
society. It was then reported that 296, 2981. had been
received, together with stores valued at 45,000. 1 Aug. 1871
Col. Loyd Lindsay conveyed to Versailles and Paris
from the society 40,000l., equally divided between
the Germans and French (gratefully acknowledged)

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Ainadin, see Ajnadin.

Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen), a Roman city, now in Rhenish Prussia. Several ecclesiastical councils held here (799-1165). Here Charlemagne was born, 742, and died, 814; having built the minster (796-804), and conferred many privileges on the city, in which fifty-five emperors have since been crowned. The city was taken by the French in Dec., 1792; retaken by the Austrians, March, 1793; by the French, Sept. 1794; ceded to Prussia, 1814.

First Treaty of Peace signed here was between France and
Spain, when France yielded Franche-Comté, but retained
her conquests in the Netherlands, 2 May, 1668.

The second celebrated treaty between Great Britain, France,
Holland, Germany, Spain, and Genoa. (By it the treaties
of Westphalia in 1648, of Nimeguen in 1678 and 1679, of
Ryswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, of Baden in 1714, of the
Triple Alliance in 1717, of the Quadruple Alliance in 1718,
and of Vienna in 1738, were renewed and confirmed.)
Signed on the part of England by John, earl of Sandwich,
and sir Thomas Robinson, 7 Oct. 1748.
Congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia,
assisted by ministers from England and France, met at Aix-
la-Chapelle, and a convention signed, 9 Oct. 1818, which led
to the withdrawal of the army of occupation from France.
Aix Roads, see Rochefort.
Ajaccio, see Corsica.

hometans defeated the army of the emperor Heraclius,
Ajnadin, or Aiznadin (Syria). Here the Ma-
13 July, 633. They took Damascus in 634.

Akerman (Bessarabia). After being several times Here the celetaken, it was ceded to Russia in 1812. brated treaty between Russia and Turkey was concluded, 4 Sept. 1826, which secured for the former the navigation of the Black Sea, recognized the Danubian principalities, etc.

Air, or ATMOSPHERE, Anaximenes of Miletus (530 B.C.) declared air to be a self-existent deity, and the first cause of everything created. Posidonius (about 79 B.C.) calculated the height of the atmosphere to be 800 stadia. The pressure of air, about 15 lbs. to the square inch, was discovered by Galileo, 1564, and demonstrated by Torricelli (who invented the barometer) about A.D. 1643, and was found by Pascal, in 1647, to vary with the height. Halley, Newton, and others up to the present time have illustrated the agency and influences of this great power by various experiments, and numerous inventions have followed; among others, the AIR-GUN of Guter of Nuremberg about 1656; the AIR-PUMP, invented by Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg about 1650; improved by Robert Boyle in 1657, by Robert Hooke about 1659;* and the AIR-PIPE, invented by Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, about 1756. The density and elasticity of air were determined by Boyle; and its relation to light and sound by Hooke, Newton, and Derham. The extension of our atmosphere above the surface of the earth has been long considered as about 45 miles.-Its composition, about 77 parts of nitrogen, 21 of oxygen, and 2 of other matters (such as carbonic acid, watery vapor, a trace of ammonia, etc.) was ascertained by Priestley (who discovered oxygen gas in 1774), Scheele (1775), Lavoisier, and Cavendish; and its laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. The researches of Dr. Schönbein, a German chemist of Basel, between 1840 and 1859, led to his description of two states of the oxygen in the air, which he calls ozone and antozone. Dr. Stenhouse's Air-filters (in which powdered charcoal is used) were first set up at the Mansionhouse, London, in 1854. In 1858, Dr. R. Angus Smith Alabama, a steam-vessel of 900 tons, with engines made known a chemical method of ascertaining the amount of organic matter in the air, and published his of 300 horse-power, constructed by Messrs. Laird at Bir"Air and Rain" in 1872; see Oxygen, Nitrogen, Ozone, At-kenhead, for the Confederate service; launched 15 May, mospheric Railway, Balloons, and Pneumatic Despatch. The Aero-steam Engine, the invention of George Warsop, a mechanic of Nottingham, who, by employing compressed air united with steam, is said to have effected the saving of 47 per cent. of fuel. The plan was reported to the British Association at Exeter in Aug. 1869, and was said to act successfully in a tug steamer (for China) in the Thames, 26 Col. Beaumont's air-engine for propelling railway-carriages, tried at Woolwich, reported successful (a little steam is used), 6 Oct. 1880.

March, 1870.

Victor Popp applies compressed air as a motive power to clocks, 1881.

An Air-telegraph, in which the waves of air in a tube are employed instead of electricity, invented by sig. Guattari, was exhibited in London in 1870. It obtained a gold medal in Naples.

Isaac Wilkinson patented a method of compressing air by a column of water in 1757, and William Mann patented stagepumping by compressed air in 1829. The force of compressed air was employed in boring the Cenis tunnel (which see).

Air-Gas-light COMPANY: proposed to use hydrocarburetted air as a source of light; established 1872. Air-tight Stove, designed to economize fuel, invented by Isaac Orr, 1836.

Air-whistle. A shrill whistle worked by an airpump, and audible at three or four miles distance, used as a marine fog-signal; invented by C. Daboll, of New London, Conn. 1850.

* Sprengel's excellent air-pump, in which water or mercury is employed, was invented in 1863.

† Air, as well as its gaseous components, has been compressed into the liquid state by means of great pressure and intense cold, 1877-8, by Raoul Pictet of Geneva, and Cailletet of Paris, Dec. 1877, Jan. 1878.

Akhalzikh (Armenia). Near here prince Paskiewitch and the Russians defeated the Turks, 24 Aug., and gained the city, 28 Aug. 1828.

Alabama, a Southern state of the United States of America; originally a part of Georgia; made a state in 1819; commercial metropolis, Mobile. Passed an ordinance of secession, 11 Jan. 1861; was readmitted to representation in Congress, 1868. Pop. 1880, 1,262,794.

1862. During the judicial inquiries after her character, she sailed from the Mersey, 28 July, the day before the British government telegraphed to detain her. Under the command of capt. Semmes, she did great damage to the American mercantile shipping, until her destruction by the federal iron-clad Kearsarge, capt. Winslow, off Cherbourg, 19 June, 1864. Several of her crew were saved by Mr. John Lancaster in his yacht. Admiral Semmes died Sept. 1877.

Discussion between the two governments respecting claims for damage by the Alabama..

1865

A fruitless convention for their settlement by a commis-
sion signed at London...
..10 Nov. 1868

Another convention, signed by the earl of Clarendon and
Mr. Reverdy Johnson, 14 Jan.; rejected by the United
States senate...
..13 April, 1869

Joint commission (British, earl de Grey, sir Stafford
Northcote, and others; American, secretary Fish, gen.
Schenck, and others) to settle fishery disputes, Ala-
bama claims, etc. Announced, 9 Feb.; met at Wash-
ington, 27 Feb.; signed a treaty at Washington..8 May, 1871
Commission for Anglo-American claims met at Washing-
ton..
25 Sept.
Formal meeting of the arbitration commission at Geneva
(adjourns to 15 June)....
18 Dec.

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The British and American cases presented 20 Dec.
Great excitement in England at the introduction of
enormous claims for indirect losses into the American
case, loss by transfer of trade from American to British
ships, increased rates of marine insurance, and losses
incident to the prolongation of the war.... .....Jan. 1872
Correspondence between the governments; British de-
spatch, 3 Feb.; reply, 1 March; continued; counter-
cases presented at Geneva..
...15 April,
Continued correspondence, draft for a supplementary
treaty, by which both nations agree in future to ab-
stain from claims for indirect losses presented to Ameri-
can senate; approved...
.25 May,

The British government object to certain modifications;

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The Arbitration tribunal, consisting of count Frederic Sclopis for Italy, president; baron Staempfli for Switzerland; vicomte d'Itajuba for Brazil; Mr. C. F. Adams for United States, and sir Alexander E. Cockburn for Great Britain, meet at Geneva. The British government presents a note of the existing differences; the conference adjourns... .....15 June, Further adjournment, 17 June; the arbitrators voluntarily declare that the indirect claims are invalid, and contrary to international law, 19 June; president Grant consents to their withdrawal.. ..25 June, The British government withdraw their application for adjournment of the conference 27 June, The Arbitration commission records its decision against the indirect claims, and the proposed long adjournment, and adjourns to 15 July...... 28 June, Final meeting; all the arbitrators agree to award damages for the injuries done by the Alabama; four for those done by the Florida; and three for those done by the Shenandoah. The judgment not signed by sir A. Cockburn, whose reasons were published; the damages awarded (including interest), about 3,229,166/. 138. 4d.; those claimed, 9,476, 1667. 13s. 4d. (Decision based on the admission of a new ex-post-facto international law, by Great Britain by the treaty of Washington.)

ments.

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14 Sept. The judgment of sir A. Cockburn admitting the award for the Alabama; opposing the other awards; yet counselling submission to the judgment, signed 14 Sept., and published in London Gazette with other docu.20 Sept. 3,200,000l. were voted; the receipt of 3,196,874l. acknowledged by Mr. Secretary Fish .9 Sept. Aladja Dagh, near Kars, Armenia. Here the Turks, under Ahmed Mukhtar, after severe conflicts, were totally defeated by the Russians under the grandduke Michael, and gens. Loris Melikoff, Lazareff, and Heimann, 14, 15 Oct. 1877.

The Turkish army was divided and broken up, the strong camp taken, with many prisoners, including 7 pashas and 38 guns. The Russian strategy was highly commended. This overwhelming disaster, which led to the investment of Kars, was attributed to Mukhtar's maintaining too extended lines, which were turned (20 miles with only 40,000 men; when 200,000 were required).

Alamo, a fort in Texas, near San Antonio. Here occurred the massacre of the Alamo, 6 March, 1836, on which day a Mexican force of 1500 or 2000 men, under Santa Anna, after having in vain besieged and bombarded its garrison of 140 Texans, under col. Travis, ever since the 23d of the preceding month, stormed the place *and took it, after being twice repulsed. But six Texans were left alive after the assault, and these were murdered in cold blood in Santa Anna's presence, by his order, after surrender on promise of protection.

Aland Isles (Gulf of Bothnia), taken from Sweden by Russia, 1809; see Bomarsund.

Alani, a Tartar race, invaded Parthia, 75. They joined the Huns in invading the Roman empire, and were defeated by Theodosius, 379-382. They were subdued by the Visigoths, 452, and eventually incorporated

with them.

Alarcos (central Spain). Here the Spaniards, under Alfonso IX., king of Castile, were totally defeated by the Moors, 19 July, 1195.

Alaska, the name given to the Russian possessions in North America, purchased by the United States by treaty, 13 March, 1867, for $7,200,000, received 1 Aug. 1868. Sitka is the principal station.

Alba Longa, an ancient city of Italy, said to have been founded by Ascanius, son of Eneas, 1152 B.C. Its history is mythical.

Ascanius, son of Eneas, 1152 B.C.; Sylvius Posthumus, 1143; Eneas Sylvius..

.B. C. 1114 916

Reign of Latinus, 1048; Alba, 1038; Atys, or Capetus, 1002; Capys, 976; Capetus... Reign of Tiberinus, 903; being defeated in battle near the river Albula, he throws himself into the stream, is drowned, and hence this river is called the Tiber.. Agrippa: Romulus Silvius, 864; Aventinus, 845; Procas, 808; Numitor..... Amulius, the brother of Numitor, seizes the throne, 794;

895

795

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Albania, a province in European Turkey, formerly part of the ancient Epirus. The Albanians became independent during the decline of the Greek empire. They were successfully attacked by the Turks in 1388. About 1443, under George Castriot (Scanderbeg), they baffled the efforts of Mahomet II. to subdue them till the siege of Scutari in 1478, when they submitted. Ali Pacha, of Janina, in 1812, defeated the Turkish pachas, and governed Albania ably, but cruelly and despotically, till Feb. 1822, when he and his two sons were slain, after surrendering under a solemn promise of safety. A revolt in Albania was suppressed in 1843.

An Albanian league (favored by the Turks) formed to resist the cession of any part of the country to Austria and Montenegro in April, said to have caused the death of Mehemet Ali...

..7 Sept. 1878

The country semi-independent... .April, 1879 Army formed rebel against Turkey. April, 1880 The league forces defeated in an attack on Dervish Pacha in Uskub between Pristma and Prisend, 19 April; he reported the country settled, but asked for reinforcements; more fighting; Albanians said to be defeated, and struggle almost over, 12 May, 1881.

See Dulcigno.

Albans, St. (Hertfordshire), near the Roman Verulam, derived its name from Alban, the British protomartyr, said to have been beheaded during the persecution by Diocletian, 23 June, 286. A stately monastery to his memory was erected about 795, by Offa, king of Mercia, who granted it many privileges. Its superior sat as premier abbot in parliament till the dissolution in 1539. A meeting was held 22 June, 1871, to raise a fund for the restoration of the abbey, the earf of Verulam chairman. The results were favorable, and the work was confided to Mr. G. Gilbert Scott, who issued a report in June, 1872. Verulam was built on the site of the capital of Cassivelaunus, taken by Julius Cæsar, 54 B.C. It was retaken, after much slaughter, by Boadicea or Bunduica, queen of the Iceni, A.D. 61.

First battle of St. Albans, when the Lancastrians were defeated, their leader, Edmund, duke of Somerset slain, and king Henry VI. taken prisoner by the duke of York and his partisans, 22 or 23 May, 1455.

Second battle, queen Margaret totally defeated the Yorkists
under the earl of Warwick, and rescued the king, Shrove-
St. Albans incorporated by Edward VI. 1553.
Tuesday, 17 Feb. 1461.
Disfranchised for bribery, 17 June, 1852.

Act passed to make arrangements for erecting a bishopric of St. Albans, 29 June, 1875. See constituted, 30 April; made a city, 28 Aug. 1877.

BISHOP.

1877. Thomas Legh Claughton (trans. from Rochester).

St. Albans Raid, see United States, Oct. 1864.

St. Albans Murder, see Trials, 1880.

Alban's, St., Church, Holborn; see under Church of England, 1867.

Albany, or ALBAINN, the ancient name of the Scottish Highlands. Robert Stewart, the brother of king Robert III., was created the first duke of Albany in 1398, and the title has ever since been connected with the crown of Scotland. The young pretender, prince Charles Edward, and his wife took the title of count and countess of Albany; see York.

1420.

DUKES OF ALBANY.

Murdoch, son; regent; executed for treason by king 1398. Robert; regent; 1406; died 3 Sept. 1420. James I., 1424.

1452. Alexander, brother of king James II.; acted treasonably; exiled; killed accidentally at Paris, 1485.

1514. John, son; regent; went abroad; died at Paris, 1526. See York and Albany, dukes. 1881. Prince Leopold. fourth son of queen Victoria, was created duke of Albany 24 May, 1881.

Albany, the capital city of the state of New York; founded by the Dutch, 1614; incorporated as a city, 1686; made the capital, 1797; capitol built, 1807; act | authorizing the building of a new capitol passed, 1865;

first appropriation for that purpose, 1867; corner-stone laid 24 June, 1871. Dudley Observatory incorporated, 1852; dedicated, 1856. Except Jamestown, Va., Albany is the oldest settlement in the thirteen original states. Henry Hudson visited the place in his ship the Half Moon, Sept. 1609. The town was originally named New Orange; name changed to Albany, 1664. First convention for the union of the colonies (B. Franklin, president) assembled at Albany, 1754.

The

Albert Memorials (see England, Queen). Prince-consort died on 14 Dec. 1861, deeply lamented by the whole civilized world. His remains were transferred to the mausoleum of Frogmore, 18 Dec. 1862. The sarcophagus is composed of the largest known block of granite without flaw. A meeting to organize a method of receiving contributions for a great national memorial was held at the Mansion-house, 14 Jan. 1862; and a large sum was quickly subscribed. 36,0007. had been received on 1 March; 50,2207. on 11 June, 1862; and parliament voted 50,000/., in addition to the 60,000l. received by voluntary contributions, 23 April, 1863.

Nor

The nature of the memorial was referred to the queen herself.
In a letter to the lord mayor, dated 19 Feb. 1862, sir Charles
Grey says, on behalf of her majesty, "It would be more in
accordance with her own feelings, and she believes with
those of the country in general, that the monument should
be directly personal to its object. After giving the subject
her maturest consideration, her majesty has come to the
conclusion that nothing would be more appropriate, provided
it is on a scale of sufficient grandeur, than an obelisk to be
erected in Hyde park on the site of the Great Exhibition of
1851, or on some spot immediately contiguous to it.
would any proposal that could be made be more gratifying
to the queen herself personally, for she can never forget
that the prince himself had highly approved of the idea of
a memorial of this character being raised on the same spot
in remembrance of the Great Exhibition." In a second let-
ter the queen expressed her intention of personally contrib-
uting towards erecting the memorial, that "it might be re-
corded in future ages as raised by the queen and people of
a grateful country to the memory of its benefactor." Short
ly after a committee was appointed to fulfil her majesty's
desire. As a suitable block of granite could not be obtained,
the proposal for an obelisk was given up.
The queen approved of the design of Mr. Gilbert G. Scott for
an Eleanor Cross, with a spire 150 feet high, accompanied
by statues, etc., 22 April, 1863; work begun 13 May, 1864.
The sculptors employed were M'Dowell, Foley, Theed, John
Bell, and Armistead: material, Sicilian marble. (Jan.
1865.) The gilt statue by Foley uncovered 9 March, 1876.

The memorial, complete, except the statue by Foley (delayed
through illness), was given up to her majesty privately, 1
July, 1872.

cert was given to the workmen 25 Feb., and the hall was opened by the queen 29 March, 1871, when a grand concert was given.

ALBERT BRIDGE, Chelsea, opened 23 Aug. 1873; freed from toll 24 May, 1879.

10 Jan. 1880.

ALBERT EMBANKMENT. etc., see Thames, 1869; Docks.
ALBERT INSTITUTE, Windsor, opened by the prince of Wales,
ALBERT MEDALS, to be awarded to persons who endanger their
lives by saving others from shipwreck, appointed by royal
warrant, 3 March, 1866. The first was given to Samuel Pop-
plestone on 14 May, 1866, for saving life on 23 March pre-
vious; medals awarded to Pontypridd miners and others for
saving men imprisoned in a mine through inundation (see
Coal: Accidents), April, 1877.

ALBERT MEDAL (gold), awarded by the Society of Arts to sir
Rowland Hill, 1864; Napoleon III. 1865; Michael Faraday,
1866; Charles Wheatstone and William Fothergill Cooke,
1867; Joseph Whitworth, 1868; Justus Liebig, 1869; Ferdi-
nand de Lesseps, 1870; Henry Cole, C. B., 1871; Henry Bes-
semer, 1872; Michel Eugène Chevreul, 1873; C. William
Siemens, 1874; Michel Chevallier, 1875; sir G. B. Airy, 1876;
Jean Baptiste Dumas, 1877; sir William G. Armstrong, 1878;
sir William Thomson, 1879; James Prescott Joule, 1880.
Royal Albert Orphan Ásylum, Bagshot; founded 1864.

Albigenses, a name given to various persons who opposed the doctrines and corruptions of the Church of Rome, living at Albi, in Languedoc, and at Toulouse in the 12th century. They were persecuted as Manichæans, 1163, and a crusade (proclaimed by pope Innocent III.) against them commenced in 1207. Simon de Montfort commanded 500,000 men, and at Bezièrs, 1209, he and the pope's legate put friends and foes to the sword, saying, "God will find his own!"* At Minerba he burned 150 of the Albigenses alive; and at La Vaur he hanged the governor, and beheaded the chief people, drowning the governor's wife, and murdering other women. He defeated Raymond, count of Toulouse, but was himself killed in 1218. Louis VIII. and IX., kings of France, patronized the crusade; count Raymond was subdued, and abdicated in 1229; and the heretics were given up to the Inquisition. They had little in common with the Waldenses (which see).

Albion. Britain is so called by Aristotle (died 322 B.C.). Julius Cæsar and others are said to have given it the name (from albus, white) on account of its chalky cliffs.

Albuera, or ALBUHERA, Estremadura, Spain. Here a battle was fought between the French, commanded by marshal Soult, and the British and Anglo-Spanish army, under marshal (afterwards lord) Beresford, Doyne C. Bell's Descriptive and Illustrated Account of this 16 May, 1811. The allies obtained a brilliant victory. Monument, published by Mr. John Murray, 1873. Inscription on the "Memorial Cairn" on a high mountain The French loss exceeded 8000 men previously to their overlooking Balmoral Palace:-"To the beloved memory retreat; but the allies lost a large number. The chief of ALBERT, the great and good Prince-consort, erected by his brunt of the action fell on the British; colonel Inglis, 22 broken-hearted widow, VICTORIA R., 21 Aug. 1862." Upon officers, and more than 400 men, out of 570 who had another dressed slab, a few inches below the above, is this quotation: "He being made perfect in a short time, ful- mounted a hill, fell-out of the 57th regiment alone; the filled a long time: for his soul pleased the Lord, therefore other regiments were scarcely better off, not one third hasted he to take him away from among the wicked."-being left standing: "1500 unwounded men, the remnant Wisdom of Solomon, iv. 13, 14.

A statue of the prince-consort (by Theed) inaugurated at Rosenau, his birthplace, in the presence of the queen and the royal family, 19 Aug. 1865.

"Early Years of the Prince-consort," edited by the Hon. Charles Grey, published 6 July, 1867.

Another statue by Theed at Balmoral, inaugurated 15 Oct.

1867.

The statue at the Holborn Circus, uncovered by the prince of

Wales, 9 Jan. 1874.

The Albert Memorial Chapel at Windsor opened to the public,

1 Dec. 1875.

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ROYAL ALBERT HALL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES: The erection of a great building for congresses, concerts, etc., was proposed by the prince-consort at the close of the exhibition of 1851, and an estate at Kensington was purchased; a committee, with the prince of Wales at the head, to erect the building, was appointed 6 July, 1865; circulars soliciting subscriptions were issued April, 1866; and the first stone was laid by the queen, 20 May, 1867.

The building was erected by col. Scott, capt. Fowke, and cost about 200,000. is said to be the largest in the world.

chiefly after designs by

The organ, by Wills,
An experimental con-

of 6000 unconquerable British soldiers, stood triumphant on this fatal hill."-Napier.

Albufera (Spain, East Central), a lagoon near which the French marshal Suchet (afterwards duke of Albufera) defeated the Spaniards under Blake, 4 Jan. 1812: this led to his capture of Valencia on 9 Jan.

the university here was printed the Complutensian PolyAlcala, Spain, near the Roman Complutum. At glot Bible, at the expense of cardinal Ximenes, 1502-15.

Alcantara,, a town on the Tagus, W. Spain. A fine bridge was built here by Trajan about 104. The duke of Alva acquired Portugal for Spain by defeating the Portuguese army here, 24 June, 1580. The Spanish military order of knighthood of Alcantara was established in 1156. The sovereign of Spain has been grandmaster since 1495.

Alcazar - Quiver, near Fez, N.W. Africa, where the Moors totally defeated the Portuguese, whose gallant king Sebastian was slain, 4 Aug. 1578. The Portu

Now contradicted.

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