Authority of the six general councils re-established by Theodosius.. 715 of the shire. It increased the number of Tory voters, and in consequence several attempts were made to repeal 787 it. It was superseded by the Reform act of 15 Aug. 870 1095 VIL Second Nicene: 350 bishops attended; against Iconoclasts. .24 Sept. to 23 Oct. VIII. Constantinople: the emperor Basil attended; against Iconoclasts and heresies. 5 Oct. 869, to 28 Feb. At Clermont, convened by Urban II. to authorize the crusades: 310 bishops attended. IX. First Lateran: right of investiture settled by treaty between pope Calixtus II. and the emperor Henry V., 18 March to 5 April, 1123 X. Second Lateran: Innocent II. presided; preservation of temporalities of ecclesiastics the principal subject; 1000 fathers of the church attended... .20 April, 1139 XI. Third Lateran, against schismatics....5 to 19 March, 1179 XII. Fourth Lateran: 400 bishops and 1000 abbots attended; Innocent III. presided; against Albigenses, ...11 to 30 Nov. 1215 XIII. Lyons: under pope Innocent IV.; emperor Frederick II. deposed... ..28 June to 17 July, 1245 XIV. Lyons: under Gregory X.; temporary union of Greek and Latin churches. ..7 May to 17 June, 1274 XV. Vienne in Dauphiné: Clement V. presided, and the kings of France and Aragon attended; order of Knights Templar suppressed... 16 Oct. 1311; 3 April and 6 May, 1312 XVI. Pisa: Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. deposed; Alexander elected. ..5 March to 7 Aug. 1409 XVII. Constance: Martin V. elected pope; and John Huss and Jerome of Prague condemned to be burned.....1414-18 XVIII. Basel... etc. 1867. By the Winter Assizes act, 1876, certain counties were united (by order in council, first time, 23 Oct. 1876) to facilitate more speedy trials of prisoners. In the United States the division of the states into counties has existed from the colonial period. In Louisiana the counties are called parishes, and until 1868 those in South Carolina were called districts. Country Dance, see Contre Danse. Country Party, see Court Party. County Courts, or SCHYREMOTES, in the time of the Saxons, were important tribunals. Alfred is said to have divided England into counties, and counties into humdreds; but county courts seem to have existed much earlier. 1431-43 1512 Their proceedings facilitated in 1852 and 1854; 60 county courts in England and Wales. XIX. Fifth Lateran: begun by Julius II.. Continued under Leo X. for the suppression of the pragmatic sanction of France, against the council of Pisa, etc., till. 1517 XX. Trent: held to condemn the doctrines of the reformers Luther, Zuinglius, and Calvin (see Trent), 13 Dec. 1545, to 3 Dec. 1563 XXI. Rome: summoned by an encyclical letter, 8 Sept. 1868; met... ...8 Dec. 1869 Present: 6 archbishop princes, 49 cardinals, 11 patriarchs, 680 archbishops and bishops, 23 abbots, 29 generals of orders-803 in all.. There were held four public sessions, and between 90 and 100 congregations. New canons were issued 24 April, 1870, and, after much discussion and opposition, the infallibility of the pope as head of the Church was affirmed by 547 placets against 2 non-placets, and promulgated. ...18 July, 1870 Many bishops withdrew from the discussion. The council then adjourned to 11 Nov. (see Rome). Councils, FRENCH. The Council of ANCIENTS, consisting of 250 members, together with the Council of FIVE HUNDRED, instituted at Paris, 1 Nov. 1795: the executive was a Directory of FIVE. Bonaparte dispersed the Council of Five Hundred at St. Cloud, 9 Nov. 1799, declaring himself, Roger Ducos, and Siéyès, consuls provisoires; see France. Counsel are supposed to be coeval with the curia regis. Advocates are referred to the time of Edward I., but are mentioned earlier. Counsel who were guilty of deceit or collusion were punishable by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 1285. Counsel were allowed to persons charged with treason, by act 8 Will. III. 1696. An act to enable persons indicted for felony to make their defence by counsel, passed Aug. 1836; see Barristers and King's Counsel. Count, Latin comes, a companion; French comte; equivalent to the English earl (whose wife is still termed a countess), and to the German Graf; see Champagne and Toulouse. Counterpoint (in music), writing the chords to a melody. The earliest known specimen of contrapuntal writing is by Adam de la Halle in the twelfth century. Countess of Huntingdon's Connection, see Whitefieldites. Counties, or SHIRES. The division of this kingdom into counties began, it is said, with king Alfred; but some counties bore their present names above a century before. The division of Ireland into counties took place in 1562. Lord-lieutenants were appointed in 1549 in England, and in 1831 in Ireland. Counties first sent members to parliament, before which period knights met in their own counties, 1285. CHANDOS CLAUSE, sect. 20 of the Reform act, 2 Will. IV. c. 45 (1832), inserted by the motion of the marquess of Chandos, tenants of land not situate in nual rent of 501., became e By it occupiers as th, paying an anfor the knight 1850 1868-72 In 1850 plaints entered at the courts of the sixty circuits Equity powers, like those of the court of chancery, in County Court acts amended by act passed. Aug. 1869 ..2 Aug. 1875 ..July, 1879 County Franchise, a bill for giving votes to laborers and others, annually brought in by Mr. G. O. Trevelyan; see Household Suffrage. County Officers and Courts, Ireland: an act to amend the law respecting them passed 14 Aug. 1877. Coup d'État, in France; Pronunciamiento in Spain: Changes in the government effected by force, either by the ruler, the army, or the populace. The speaker's coup d'état, see Parliament, 2 Feb. 1881. Couriers. Xenophon attributes the first to Cyrus; and Herodotus says that they were common among the Persians (see Esther iii. 15) about 510 B.C. The Greeks and Romans had no regular couriers till the time of Augustus, when they travelled in cars, about 24 B.C. Couriers or posts are said to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne about A.D. 800. Couriers for letters were employed by Louis XI. of France, 1463.-Hénault. See Post-office. Courland, a duchy of Livonia, conquered by Danes, 1218; by Teutonic knights, 1239; subjected to Poland in 1561; conquered by Charles XII. of Sweden in 1701; Ernest Biren, duke, 1737; his son, Peter, 1769; annexed to Russia, March, 1795. Court Baron, an ancient court which every lord of a manor may hold by prescription. In it duties, heriots, and customs are received, and estates and surrenders are passed. Its jurisdiction was restricted in 1747 and 1833. By the Small Debts act, 1856, lords of the manor may give up holding these courts. Court Circular, conservative weekly paper; established 26 April, 1856. Court Dress, see Dress. Court Journal, fashionable journal, established 1829. Court Leet, an ancient court of record, belonging to a hundred, instituted for punishing encroachments, nuisances, fraudulent weights and measures, etc. The steward is judge, and all persons residing within the hundred (peers, clergymen, etc., excepted) are obliged to totally defeated the duc de Joyeuse and the royalists, 20 do suit within this court. Oct. 1587. Court of Honor. In England the court of chivalry, of which the lord high-constable was a judge, was called Curia Militaris in the time of Henry IV., and subsequently the Court of Honor. In Bavaria, to prevent duelling, a court of honor was instituted in April, 1819. Mr. Joseph Hamilton for many years ardently labored to establish a similar institution in Britain. Court of Justiciary, High, in Scotland, constituted by a commission under the great seal, 1671, ratified 1672. The present lord justice-general, the right hon. John Inglis, was appointed Feb. 1867, and the lord justice-clerk, the right hon. James Moncrieff, Nov. 1869; made lord Moncrieff, Dec. 1873. The procedure in this court was amended by an act passed in 1868. Court of Requests (or COURT OF CONSCIENCE), first instituted in the reign of Henry VII., 1493, and remodelled by Henry VIII. in 1517.-Stow. Established for the summary recovery of small debts under forty shillings; but in the city of London the jurisdiction extended to debts of five pounds.-Ashe. The courts of requests superseded in 1847 by the County Courts (which see). Court of Session, the highest civil tribunal in Scotland, was instituted by James V. by statute, 17 May, 1532. It consisted of fourteen judges and a president, and replaced a committee of parliament. In 1830 the number of judges was reduced; and the court now consists of the lord president, the lord justice-clerk, and eleven ordinary judges. In 1867 the necessity of renovating this court was asserted by high legal authority; and an act to amend its procedure was passed 31 July, 1868. The present lord president, the right hon. John Inglis, was appointed, Feb. 1867. Court Party-Country Party, politicians in the parliaments of England, beginning about 1620. At the end of the seventeenth century the latter embodied toryism and high-church principles, maintained the rights of "the land," as opposed to whiggism and the trading interests. Its most distinguished statesman was sir Thomas Hanmer (the Montalto of Pope's Satires), who died in 1746.-Ashe. Covenanters, those persons who, in the reign of 1. The preservation of the reformed church in Scotland, and 3. 4. 5. 6. The preservation of the liberties of parliament and the king's person and authority. The discovery and punishment of all malignants, etc. The preservation of "a blessed peace between these king doms." The assisting all who enter into the covenant: "This will we do as in the sight of God." Covent Garden (London), corrupted from "Convent Garden," having been the garden of St. Peter's convent. The square was built about 1633, and the piazza on the north side and the church were designed by Inigo Jones. The fruit and vegetable markets were rebuilt in 1829-30, from designs by Mr. Fowler (the ground belonging to the duke of Bedford). Covent Garden Theatre sprang out of one in Lincoln's-inn Fields, through a patent granted 14 Chas. II. 1662, to sir William Davenant, whose company was denominated the "duke's servants," as a compliment to the duke of York, afterwards James II.; see under Theutres. The theatre was burned down 5 March, 1856, dur ing a bal masqué held by Mr. Anderson, the Wizard of Coventry (Warwickshire). Leofric, earl of Mercia, lord of Coventry, is said to have relieved it from heavy taxes, at the intercession of his wife Godiva, on condition of her riding naked through the streets, about 1057. Processions in her memory took place in 1851; 23 June, Court Theatre, Sloane Square, Chelsea, opened 25 1862; 4 June, 1866; 20 June, 1870; and 4 June, 1877. Jan. 1871; Miss Litton first manager. Courtrai (Belgium). Here Robert, count of Artois, who had defeated the Flemings in 1297, was defeated and slain by them, 11 July, 1302. The conflict was named the "Battle of Spurs," from the number of gilt spurs collected. A parliament was held here in the reign of Henry IV., called parliamentum indoctum, or the unlearned parliament, because lawyers were excluded, 1404; and in the reign of Henry VI. another met, called parliamentum diabolicum, from the acts of attainder passed against the duke of York and others, 20 Nov. 1459. The town was Courts of Justice were instituted at Athens 1507 surrounded with strong walls, three miles in circumferB.C. (see Areopagus); by Moses, 1491 B.C. (Exod. xviii. ence, and twenty-six towers, which were demolished by 25), and in Rome. For these realms, see Chancery, Com- order of Charles II. in 1662. The ribbon-makers here mon Pleas, Exchequer, King's Bench, etc. The citizens suffered much from want of work in the winter of 1860-1. of London were privileged to plead their own cause in An industrial exhibition here was opened by earl Granthe courts of judicature, without employing lawyers, ex-ville, 19 June; closed by the earl of Clarendon, 21 Oct. cept in pleas of the crown, 41 Hen. III. 1257.-Stow. The rights of the Irish courts were established by the British parliament in April, 1783. Courts of Law Fees Act, passed 20 Aug. 1867, directs the application of surplus fees towards providing new courts of justice. Acts for building these courts were passed in 1865 and 1866. The plan for their erection by Mr. Street was approved of in 1871. Courts of Survey, consisting of a judge and two assistants, for appeals respecting unseaworthy ships, were directed to be appointed in certain ports and districts by the Merchant Shipping Act, 39 & 40 Vict. c. 80 (15 Aug. 1876). They sat in 1877. Courts-martial are regulated by the Mutiny act, first passed in 1690. The powers of these courts were much discussed in 1867, in consequence of the measures used to suppress the negro insurrection in Jamaica, Oct. 1866. Coutras (S.W. France). Here Henry of Navarre 1867. The prince and princess of Wales were warmly received 7 Nov. 1874. The BISHOPRIC was founded by Oswy, king of Mercia, 656, and had the double name of bishops. It was so wealthy that king Offa, by the favor Coventry and Lichfield, which was reversed by later of pope Adrian, made it archiepiscopal; but this title was laid aside on the death of that king. In 1075 the see was removed to Chester; in 1102 to Coventry; and afterwards to its original foundation, Lichfield, but with great opposition from the monks of Coventry. Coventry merged into the bishopric of Lichfield (which see). Coventry Act passed to prevent malicious maiming and wounding, 6 March, 1671, in consequence of sir John Coventry, K.B., M.P., being maimed in the streets of London by sir Thomas Sandys and others, adherents of the duke of Monmouth, 21 Dec. 1670. Repealed 1828. Cowpens, Battle at the. This battle-ground is in Spartanburg district, South Carolina, among the Thickety Mountains. There, on 17 Jan. 1781, a very severe battle was fought between the Americans under gen. Daniel Morgan, and the British under col. Tarleton. The combat continued more than two hours, with mutual skill and bravery. The British were defeated, with a loss of almost 300 men killed and wounded, 500 men made prisoners, and a large quantity of ammunition, stores, and baggage. The Americans lost 70 men, only 12 of whom were killed. Congress gave Morgan a gold medal in commemoration of his brilliant victory. Cow-pock Inoculation, see Smallpox and Vac cination. Cracow, a city in Austrian Poland. The Poles elected Cracus for their duke, who built Cracow with the spoils taken from the Franks about 700. It was their capital, 1320-1609. Cracow was taken by Charles XII. in 1702, and taken and retaken several times by the Russians and other confederates. The sovereign was crowned at Cracow until 1764. The Russians, who had taken it, 1768, were expelled by Kosciusko, 24 March, 1794; but it surrendered to the Prussians, 15 June, same year, and in 1795 was awarded to Austria. Cracow was formed into a republic, June, 1815. Occupied by 10,000 Russians, who followed here the defeated Poles, Sept. 1831. Its independence was extinguished, and it was seized by the emperor of Austria and incorporated with his empire, 16 Nov. 1846, which was protested against by England, France, Sweden, and Turkey; see Poland. A dreadful fire laid the greater part of the city in ashes, 18 July, 1850. The discovery on 22 July, 1869, of Barbare Abryk, a nun, secluded for 21 years in a convent cell, led to violent rioting. Cranes are of very early date, for the engines of Archimedes may be so called. In 1857 a crane had been erected at Glasgow capable of lifting 50 tons; see Der ricks. Craney Island, DEFENCE OF. This island, about five miles below Norfolk, Va., was attacked by the British 22 June, 1813; and was defended by col. Beatty and maj. Faulkner. The British were repulsed with a loss of about 200 men, the Americans losing none. Craniology (or PHRENOLOGY), the study of the external form of the human skull, as indicative of mental powers and moral qualities. Dr. Gall, the propounder, was a German physician, born March, 1758, and his first observations were among his schoolfellows. Afterwards he studied the heads of criminals and others, and eventually reduced his ideas to a system, marking out the skull like a map. His first lecture was given at Vienna in 1796; but in 1802 the Austrian government prohibited his teaching. In 1800 he was joined by Dr. Spurzheim; and in 1810-12 they published at Paris their work on the "Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System, and of the Brain in particular." Gall died in 1828. The researches of Gall and Spurzheim led to increased study of the brain. Combe's "Phrenology," first published in 1819, is the popular English work on this subject. Phrenological societies were formed early in London and Edinburgh. Phrenology was refuted by lord Jeffrey in the Edinburgh Review in 1826, and more recently by Dr. W. B. Carpenter. Professor Ferrier reported the results of researches tending to prove localization of certain faculties in the brain to the British Association, Sept. 1873. Cranmer, LATIMER, AND RIDLEY, martyrdom of; see Protestants, note. Crannoges, see Lake-dwellings. Crannon or CRANON, Thessaly, N. Greece. Near here the Macedonians, under Antipater and Craterus, defeated the confederated Greeks, twice by sea and once by land, 322 B.C. The Athenians demanded peace, and Antipater put their orators to death, among whom was Hyperides, who, that he might not betray the secrets of his country when under torture, cut out his tongue, and Demosthenes is said to have taken poison shortly after. Cranworth's Act, Lord, to simplify the practice of conveyancers, 23 & 24 Vict. c. 145 (1860). Craonne (N. France). Here Victor and Ney defeated the Prussians under Blücher after a severe contest, 7 March, 1814. Crape. It is said some crape was made by Ste. Badour, when queen of France, about 680. It is said to have been first made at Bologna. Cravant, see Crevant. Crayford (Kent). Hengist the Saxon is said to have defeated the Britons here, 457. Crayons, colored substances made into paste, and dried into pencils, were known in France about 1422, and improved by L'Oriot, 1748. Creasote, or KREASOTE (discovered by Reichenbach about 1833), a powerful antiseptic and coagulator of albuminous tissue, is obtained by the destructive distillation of wood and other organic matters. It has been used for the preservation of meat, timber, etc. Creatine (from the Greek кpéac, flesh), the chemical principle of flesh, was discovered in 1835 by E. Chevreul, and has been investigated by Liebig, Gregory, and others. Creation OF THE WORLD. The date given by the English Bible, and by Usher, Blair, and some others, is 4004 B.C. There are about 140 different dates assigned to the Creation, varing from 3616 to 6984 B.C. Dr. Hales gives 5411; see Eras. Haydn's Creation (oratorio), composed 1796-8; first performed (in London, at Covent Garden Theatre), 28 March, 1800; in Paris, 24 Dec. same year. Crèches, establishments for temporarily receiving the young children of working mothers; begun at Paris about 1844; in London (in Rathbone place, etc.) about 1863. Crecy, or CRESSY (N. France), where Edward III. and his son, Edward the Black Prince, and an army of about 36,800, obtained a great victory over Philip, king of France, with about 130,000, 26 Aug. 1346. John, king of Bohemia (nearly blind); James, king of Majorca; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign princes); and a number of French nobles, together with 30,000 private men, were slain, while the loss of the English was very small. The crest of the king of Bohemia (three ostrich-feathers, with the motto Ich dien—in English, “I serve") has since been adopted by princes of Wales. Crédit Foncier, etc. A plan of providing loans to land-owners was introduced by Frederick the Great of Prussia in 1763, in some of the Prussian provinces, as the best. method of alleviating the distresses of the landed interest caused by his wars. The system consists of lending money to land-owners on the security of their estates, and providing the loan capital by the issue of debentures charged upon the aggregate mortgaged estates. There are two modes of carrying out this scheme: (1) by means of an association of land-owners; (2) by means of a proprietary public company. The former obtains in Eastern Prussia, but the latter is exclusively found in Western Europe. Crédit Foncier companies have been founded in Hamburg (1782), Western Prussia (1787), Belgium (1841), France (1852), England (1863). Similar companies were formed in all the states of Europe, in India, and in our colonies and dependencies.-Henriques. Crédit Mobilier: a joint-stock company with this name was established at Paris by Isaac and Emile Péreire and others, 18 Nov. 1852. It took up or originated trading enterprises of all kinds, applying to them the principle of commandité, or limited liab lities; and was authorized to supersede or buy in any other companies (replacing their shares or bonds with its own scrip), and also to carry on the ordinary business of banking. The funds were to be obtained by a paid-up capital of 2 millions sterling, the issue of obligations at not less than 45 days' date or sight, and the receipt of money on deposit or current account. The society apparently prospered; but was considered by experienced persons a near approach to Law's bank of 1716. Several of the directors failed, Sept. 1857; no dividend paid........ ..May, 1858 1863 ...Oct. 1867 Crete, now CANDIA (which see). Crevant-sur-Yonne (N. France) was besieged by John Stuart, earl of Buchan, with a French army, July, 1423, and relieved by the earl of Salisbury with an army of English and Burgundians. After a severe contest, the French were totally defeated. Creveldt, near Cleves (W. Prussia). Here, on 23 June, 1758, prince Ferdinand of Brunswick defeated the French under the count of Clermont. Many companies based on its principles established in London.. Emile and Isaac Péreire withdrew from the management; the company failed, and the capital was said to have disappeared.. The high court of appeal decided that MM. Péreire and other directors were responsible for their acts, and that damages should be given to the shareholders...1 Aug. 1868 Emile Péreire died 6 Jan. 1875; Isaac died......12 July, 1880 Crédit Mobilier or AMERICA. A joint-stock company under this name was organized May, 1863, with a capital of $2,500,000. The charter was purchased, Jan. 1867, by a company interested in construct-tical with the "club ball" of the fourteenth century, Cricket, an ancient English game, said to be idening the Union Pacific Railroad, and the stock, which Rules were laid down in 1774 by a committee of noblewas increased to $3,750,000, rose to a high price, paying enormous dividends, earned in connection with Pacific men and gentlemen, including the duke of Dorset and sir Horace Mann. In 1861 the All England Eleven Railroad construction. In 1872, in the course of certain legal proceedings, it was made to appear that several beat the New York Twenty-two. In 1873-4 they were gained and lost games in Australia; in Sept. 1868, they members of congress and the vice-president of the United States were more or less secret holders of this stock, a fact which caused great scandal, inasmuch as the profits of the company and the value of the stock largely depended upon the legislative action of congress. The conviction was general that some, at least, of the members of congress who held the stock had received it as an indirect bribe, and a prolonged investigation followed during the session of congress for 1872-3. The senate committee reported, 27 Feb. 1873, recommending the expulsion of one implicated senator; but no action was taken, and his term expired five days later. The house of representatives passed resolutions censuring two of its members. Creeds, see Confessions of Faith. "History of the Creeds" appeared 1874. beaten at Melbourne. 3 Sept. 1878 Eleven Australians visited England, and, after gaining Crime. About 1856 it was computed that a fifteenth part of the population of the United Kingdom lived by crime. The increase in education and manufactures is gradually reducing this proportion. From 1848 to 1865 there had been no commitment for political offences, such as treason or sedition. The returns of thirty-two years J. R. Lumby's showed that crime absolutely and relatively diminished (Sept. 1866); see Murder, Executions, Trials, Poisoning, France, 1871, etc. Creek War. In 1813, while the United States were at war with Great Britain, the Creek Indians of Alabama were incited to hostility by Tecumseh, who visited them for that purpose, and by British agents in Florida. A fierce war followed, in which the Creeks, led by William Weatherford (Red Eagle), were overcome by gen. Jackson. The war seriously endangered the integrity of the nation; and, the Creeks being an intelligent and partly civilized people, many well-planned and stoutly contested battles were fought; see Battles, Indians, and United States, 1813-14. 12,470 52 9 Cremona (N. Italy), a city founded by the Romans, 221 B.C. It became an independent republic in 1107, but was frequently subjugated by its neighbors, Milan and Venice, and partook of their fortunes. In Nov. 1859, it became part of the kingdom of Italy. Cremona was eminent for violin-makers from about 1550 to 1750. Crescent, a symbol of sovereignty among the Greeks and Romans, and the device of Byzantium, now Constantinople, whence the Turks adopted it. The crescent has given name to three orders of knighthood; founded by Charles I. of Naples, 1268; by Réné of Anjou, in 1448; by the sultan Selim, in 1801. The last is still in existence. Crespy (N. France). Here was signed a treaty between Charles V. of Germany and Francis I. of France, 18 Sept. 1544. The former renounced Burgundy and the latter Italy. Crests are ascribed to the Carians. Richard I. (1189) had a crest on the helmet resembling a plume of feathers. The English kings had generally crowns above their helmets; that of Richard II., 1377, was surmounted by a lion on a cap of dignity; see Crecy. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a plume of feathers; the helmet of Robert I. was surmounted by a crown, 1306; and that of James I. by a lion, 1424. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the crest was described to be a figure placed upon a wreath, coronet, or cap of maintenance.-Gwillim. 20 34 Convictions in 1847: Scotland, 3558; Ireland, 15,233. In 1861: Scotland, 2428; Ireland, 3271. 1870, 36,562. Convictions in the United States: 1850, 26,679; 1860, 98,836; Act for improving the administration of criminal justice passed 7 Aug. 1851. The Criminal Justice act authorizes justices, with the consent In 1856 the expenses for criminal prosecutions in England and to be living honestly. In 1861, 1862, and 1863 the system was considered to have failed through the numerous crimes committed by ticket of Sentences to penal servitude, in 1869, 2006; 1870, 1788; 1879, leavers; it was modified by the Penal Servitude act in 1864. 1502. Criminal classes in England and Wales: estimated number, 1872-3, 76,531; 1873-4, 76,219; 1874-5, 73,963; 1875-6, 74,706. By return (known) 1877-8, 41,048; 1878-9, 54, 249. Statistical Criminal act passed.. crin, hair) is the modern name of the "fardingale" of the time of queen Elizabeth, hoop-like petticoats made of whalebone, etc., revived in France and England since 1855. They have frequently occasioned loss of life by coming in contact with fire and machinery. In No. 116 ...21 Aug. 1871 of the Tatler, published 5 Jan. 1710, is an amusing trial of the hoop-petticoat then in fashion. .11 Aug. 1869 The Cripples' Home, Marylebone Road, established 1851, for crippled girls to be taught suitable trades. Cripples' Nursery, Old Quebec street and Margate, was established 1862. Crispin AND Crispianus are said to have been two saints, born at Rome, whence they travelled to Soissons, in France, to propagate the Christian religion. They worked as shoemakers; but the governor of the town, discovering them to be Christians, ordered them to be beheaded, about 288. Their day is 25 Oct. Criterion Theatre, Regent's Circus, Piccadilly, opened by Spiers and Pond, 21 March, 1874. Crith (from the Greek кpion, a barleycorn, or small weight), a term suggested by Dr. A. W. Hofmann (about 1864) to express the volume-weight of gases; a cube containing 1 litre of hydrogen (0.0896 gramme) to be the unit. Hydrogen being one crith, oxygen will be 16, nitrogen 14 crithis. Great decrease in crimes of violence in relation to the increase of population... ....1861-1871 Reported felonies: 1871, 10,653; 1877, 12.573; burglaries, 1871, Cripplegate (London) was so called from the lame 614; 1877, 1344. beggars who sat there, so early as the year 1010. The CRIME-International Congress for the prevention and gate was newly built by the brewers of London in 1244; repression of crime met in the Middle Temple, London, 3 July, 1872 and was pulled down and sold for 917. in July, 1760. The Prevention of Crime act passed.... .15 Aug. 1879 poet Milton was buried in the church near it, 12 Nov. Crimea, or CRIM TARTARY, a peninsula in the Eux-1674; see London. ine or Black Sea, the ancient Taurica Chersonesus, colonized by the Greeks about 550 B.C. The Milesians founded the kingdom of Bosporus, now Kertch, which, about 108 B.C., formed part of the dominion of Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose descendants continued to rule the country, under Roman protection, till the irruption of the Goths, Huns, etc., about A.D. 258. About 1237 it fell into the hands of the Mongols under Genghis Khan; soon after the Venetians established commercial stations, with a lucrative trade, but were supplanted by the Genoese, who were permitted to rebuild and fortify Kaffa about 1261. In 1475 Mahomet II. expelled the Genoese, and subjected the peninsula to the Ottoman yoke; permitting the government to remain in the hands of the native khans, but closing the Black Sea to Western Europe. In 1774, by the intervention of the empress Catherine II., the Crimea recovered its independence; but on the abdication of the khan in 1783 the Russians took possession of the country, after a war with Turkey, and retained it by the treaty of Jassy, 9 Jan. 1792. The Crimea (now Taurida) was divided into eight governments in 1802. War having been declared against Russia by England and France, 28 March, 1854, large masses of troops were sent to the East, which, after remaining some time at Gallipoli and other places, sailed for Varna, where they disembarked 29 May. An expedition against the Crimea having been determined on, the allied British, French, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,000 men (25,000 British), commanded by lord Raglan and marshal St. Arnaud, sailed from Varna 3 Sept., and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th, without opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 miles from Sebastopol. On the 20th they attacked the Russians, between 40,000 and 50,000 strong (under prince Menschikoff), intrenched on the heights of Alma, supposed to be unassailable. After a sharp contest the Russians were totally routed; see Alma and Russo - Turkish War. Peace was proclaimed in April, 1856, and the allies quitted the Crimea 12 July following. Crimisus, a river in Sicily, near which Timoleon defeated the Carthaginians, 339 B.C. Crimping-houses were used to entrap persons into the army; hence the name of "crimp-sergeant." Some of them in London were destroyed by the populace, in consequence of a young man who had been enticed into one being killed in endeavoring to escape, 16 Sept. 1794. Crinan Canal, Argyleshire, cut through Kintyre peninsula, 1793-1801: 15 locks; saves about 115 miles. Crinoline (a French word, meaning stuff made of Critics. The first society of them was formed 276 B.C.-Blair. Varro, Cicero, Apollonius, and Aristarchus were ancient critics. In modern times the Journal des Sçavans was the earliest periodical critical work. It was originated by Denis de Sallo, ecclesiastical councillor in the parliament of France, and was first published at Paris, 30 May, 1655, and is still continued. Jean Le Clerc's "Ars Critica," published 1696, is said to be the earliest systematic treatise. The first work of this kind in England was the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term being invented by himself), published in Feb. 1703. The Works of the Learned began 1710, and the Waies of Literature in 1714; discontinued in 1722; see Reviews. The legality of fair criticism was established in the English courts in Feb. 1794, when an action that excited great attention, brought by an author against a reviewer for a severe critique upon his work, was determined in favor of the defendant, on the principle that criticism is allowable, however sharp, if just, and not malicious; see Trials, 1875. Croatia, conquered by Coloman, king of Hungary, in 1102, was with that country united to Austria in 1526. The Croatian diet was abolished in Nov. 1861. The Croats protested against incorporation with Hun- Crocodiles were reverenced as divinities by the Egyptians. The emperor Augustus is said to have collected twenty-five at one time in his amphitheatre, where they were killed by gladiators. Croix, St., a West India island, purchased from the French by Christian VI., king of Denmark, in 1733; taken by sir Alexander Cochrane, 22 Dec. 1807; restored in 1814. Cromlechs, ancient monuments, formerly considered to be Druidical altars, but now believed to be connected with burials. One still exists in Anglesey: similar structures have been found in Ireland, India, Arabia, and other countries. Cronstadt, Russia, founded by Peter the Great, 1710, and received its name (Crown-town) in 1721. It |