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Crook, a bishop's pastoral staff or erook, distinct from the crozier. Nine pastoral staffs have been recently presented to English bishops; one to the bishop of Hereford, Dr. James Atlay, in Jan. 1872.

was not attacked by the fleets in the war with Russia, | in England is now nearly all subject to parliament, 1854-5. which annually provides for the support of the severeign and government about 375,000l. The revenue of the duchy of Cornwall belongs to the prince of Wales even during his minority. Henry VII. (1485) resumed those lands which had been given to their followers by the sovereigns of the house of York. The hereditary estates of the crown were largely bestowed on their courtiers by the sovereigns-especially by the Stuarts.

Cropredy Bridge, near Banbury, Oxfordshire. Here the royalists defeated sir William Waller and the army of the parliament, 29 June, 1644.

Croquet. This game, which became common in Britain about 1850, is said to be a revival of the old Pall Mall (which see). It has been much superseded by Lawn Tennis, 1877-81.

Crosier, a staff surmounted by a cross, borne before an archbishop, was in use in the fourth century. The bearing a crosier before ecclesiastics is mentioned in the life of St. Cæsarea of Arles about 500.

Crown of India, Imperial Order of, instituted by queen Victoria (to commemorate the assumption of the title of empress, 1 Jan. 1877), for princesses of the royal family, distinguished Indian and British ladies, and wives of viceroys and governors and secretaries of state for India, 31 Dec. 1877. Twelve ladies (the marchioness of Salisbury and others) invested, 29 April, 1878.

Crowns AND HALF-CROWNS of silver were coined in England by Edward VI. in 1553. None were coined in 1861, and they were gradually withdrawn from circulation. The coinage of half-crowns was resumed in 1874, after an inquiry as to their utility.

Cross. That on which the Redeemer suffered on Mount Calvary was said to have been found at Jerusalem, with two others, deep in the ground, by St. Helena, 3 May, 328 (termed the Invention of the Cross); Christ's Crows. An act passed for their destruction in Engbeing distinguished from those of the thieves by a sick land, 24 Hen. VIII. 1532. Crows were anciently emwoman being cured by touching it. It was carried away by Chosroes, king of Persia, on the plundering of Jeru-ployed as letter-bearers, as carrier-pigeons are now. salem; but was recovered by the emperor Heraclius (who Croydon, Surrey, granted to Lanfranc, archbishop defeated him in battle), 14 Sept. 615, and that day has of Canterbury, about 1070. Archbishop Whitgift's hossince been commemorated as "the festival of the Exalta-pital was founded in 1596. The fine old parish church tion of the Cross," established in 642.

It is asserted by church writers that a great shining cross was seen in the heavens by Constantine, and that it led him to adopt it on his standard, with the inscription "In hoc signo vinces- Under this sign thou shalt conquer." With this (Labarum) he advanced to Rome, where he vanquished Maxentius, 27 Oct. 312-Lenglet.

Signing with the Cross was first practised by Christians to distinguish themselves from the Pagans.....about In the time of Tertullian, it was deemed efficacious against poison, witchcraft, etc..

Crosses in churches and chambers were introduced about 431; and set up on steeples about

Crosses in honor of queen Eleanor were set up in the places where her hearse rested, between 1296 (when she died) and

Crosses and idolatrous pictures were removed from churches, and crosses in the streets demolished, by order of parliament...

Maids of the Cross were a community of young women who made vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, instituted in...

The order of Ladies of the Star of the Cross was instituted by the empress Eleonora di Gonzaga, wife of Leopold I., in..

110

260

568

1307

1641

1625

1668

Crossed Checks, see Drafts. Crotona (S. Italy), a city founded by the Achæan Greeks about 710 B.C. Here Pythagoras taught about 520. The Crotons destroyed Sybaris, 510.

Crown. An Amalekite brought Saul's crown to David, 1056 B.C. (2 Sam. i.). The first Roman who wore a crown was Tarquin the Elder, 616 B.C. The crown was first a fillet tied round the head; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and also of stuffs adorned with jewels; see Tiara.

The crown of Alfred had two little bells attached (872); it is said to have been long preserved at Westminster, and may have been that described in the parliamentary inventory taken in 1649.

Athelstan's crown resembled an carl's coronet, 929. William I. wore his crown on a cap, adorned with points, 1066.

Richard III. introduced the crosses, 1483.

Henry VII. introduced the arches, 1485.

The crown and regalia of England were pledged to the city of London by Richard II. for 20007. in 1386; see the king's receipt on redeeming them.-Rymer.

The crown of Charles II., made in 1660, is the oldest existing in England (see Blood's Conspiracy).

The Imperial State Crown of England was made by Rundell and Bridges in 1838, principally with jewels taken from old crowns. It contains one large ruby, 1 large sapphire, 16 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 4 rubies, 1363 brilliants, 1273 rose diamonds, 147 table diamonds, 4 drop-shaped pearls, and 273 pearls-Professor Tennant.

Crown Lands. The revenue arising from those

was burned 5, 6 Jan. 1867.

Crozier, see Crosier.

Crucifix, the cross with the figure of Christ attached to it, first known in the fourth, came into general use in the eighth century.

Crucifixion. A mode of execution common among the Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians, Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans. Ariarathes, of Cappadocia, aged 80, vanquished by Perdiccas, and discovered among the prisoners, was flayed alive and nailed to a cross, with his principal officers, 322 B.C. Jesus Christ was crucified 3 April, A.D. 33.-Usher (15 April, A.D. 29, Clinton; 28 March, A.D. 31, Hales). Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued by Constantine, 330.-Lenglet.

Cruelty to Animals, see Animals, and Vivisec

tion.

Crusades (French Croisades), wars undertaken to drive the infidels from Jerusalem and the "Holy Land." Peter Gautier, the Hermit, an officer of Amiens, on his return from pilgrimage incited pope Urban II. to expel infidels from the city where Christ had taught. Urban convened a council of 310 bishops at Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the chief Christian potentates assisted, and gave Peter the commission to summon Europe to a general war, 1094. The first cruof which Peter had the direction, and Godfrey de Bousade was published; an army of 300,000 men was raised, illon the command, 1095. The warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulder, and their motto was l'olonté de Dieu, "God's will."-The French government have published some of the historians of the Crusades in a magnificent form (1844-77).

I. Crusade (1095) ended by Jerusalem being taken by assault, 15 July, 1099, and Godfrey de Bouillon made king. II. Preached by St. Bernard in 1146, headed by emperor Conrad II. and Louis VII of France. Crusaders defeated; Jerusalem lost in 1187.

III. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, etc., in 1188, joined by Philip II. of France and Richard I. of England in 1190. Glorious, but fruitless.

IV. 1195, by emperor Henry VI.: successful till his death in 1197.

V. Proclaimed by Innocent III., 1198. Baldwin, count of Flan ders, attacked the Greeks, and took Constantinople in 1203. His companions returned.

VI. In 1216. In 1229, emperor Frederick II. obtained possession of Jerusalem on a truce for ten years. In 1240, Richard, earl of Cornwall, arrived at Palestine, but soon departed.

VII. By Louis IX. (St. Louis), 1248, who was defeated and taken prisoner at Mansourah, 5 April, 1250; released by ransom; truce of ten years.

VIII. and last, in 1270, by the same prince, who died of a con- | Haydn's "Creation" performed (Costa, conductor), tagious disease, at Carthage, in Africa, 2 Aug. Prince Ed

ward, afterwards Edward I. of England, was at Acre, 1271. In 1291, the soldan took Acre, and the Christians were driven out of Syria.

Cruz, see Santa Cruz.

Cryolite, a Greenland mineral, a fluoride of aluminium and sodium, employed in procuring metallic aluminium in 1855.

Cryophorus, an instrument (invented by Dr. Wollaston about 1812) to demonstrate the relation between evaporation at low temperatures and the production of cold.

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1 May, 1861 Blondin's performances on an elevated rope begin here (he plays on violin, cooks, simulates falling, etc.), 1 June, Successful Handel festival: a new arched roof constructed for the orchestra; about 4030 vocal and instrumental performers.. .23, 25, 27 June, 1862 Successful Handel festival.. .26, 28, 30 June, 1865 North wing, containing tropical department, the Alham bra, and other courts, destroyed by fire (about 150,0002 damage).

...30 Dec. 1866

Prince of Wales present at a grand concert to raise funds 26 June, 1867

to restore the palace.

Visit of the viceroy of Egypt (gives 500l.), July; of the sultan (gives 1000l.).. 16 July, Conservative working-men's demonstration.....11 Nov.

shall not be issued to admit non-shareholders on Sundays. ....31 Dec.

Cryptograph, an apparatus for writing in cipher, Meeting of shareholders decide by ballot that free tickets invented by sir Charles Wheatstone, and made known in 1868, in which different key-words may be employed, and, it is said, absolute secrecy insured. A cryptographic machine was patented 1860; see Cipher.

A system of secret writing described in "Archiv der
Mathematik".

1795 Professor J. F. Lorenz published a system at Magdeburg 1806 Joseph Ludwig Kluber published "Kryptographik”. 1809 Messrs. Thos. De la Rue published Mr. Wm. Henry Rochfort's system of secret writing termed "Arcanography,' resembling Lorenz's.. 1836 Mr. A. L. Flamm patented an improvement upon this system..... ....about Oct. 1875 Crystal Palace, Hyde Park, London; see Exhibition of 1851.

Crystal Palace, New York. This building was opened 14 July, 1853, by president Pierce, for a universal industrial exhibition. It stood in Reservoir Square. Its main buildings and galleries covered an area of 173,000 square feet. After the close of the exhibition it was used by the American Institute for its fairs and for meetings of various kinds. On 5 Oct. 1858, it was destroyed by fire, together with a great number of articles sent for exhibition at the American Institute. The Crystal Palace was owned by a stock company, was designed by Messrs. Carstensen and Gildemeister, of New York, and was considered a beautiful piece of archi

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The palace opened by the queen..
Grand musical fête on behalf of the Patriotic Fund,

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First column raised by S. Laing, M. P. .5 Aug. 1852 During the progress of the works as many as 6400 men were engaged at one time. By the fall of scaffolding, 12 men were killed.. .15 Aug. 1853 Dinner given to professor Owen and others in the interior of the model of the iguanodon, constructed by Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins ..31 Dec. 10 June, 1854 28 Oct. 66 The palace visited by the emperor and empress of the French, etc.. ..20 April, 1855 First grand display of the great fountains, before the queen and 20,000 spectators. ..18 June, 1856 The receipts were 115,6274; the expenditure, 87,872., not including payments for preference shares, etc., in year ending...

..30 April, 1857

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On the fast-day (for the Indian mutiny) rev. C. Spurgeon
preached here to 23,000 persons; 4761. were collected,
to which the C. P. company added 2001.. ....7 Oct.
The preliminary Handel festivals (see Handel), 15, 17, 19
June, 1857, and...
.2 July, 1858
Centenary of the birth of Robert Burns celebrated: the
directors awarded 50/, to a prize poem on the subject,
which was obtained by Miss Isa Craig.
.25 Jan. 1859
The Handel festival.
20, 22, 24 June,
Festival kept in honor of Schiller, 10 Nov. 1859; of Men-
delssohn....
..4 May, 1860
...6 June,

London charity children sing here.
3000 Orpheonistes (French musical amateurs) perform
choral music, 25 June; the Imperial band of Guides
perform, 26 June; both dine in the palace....30 June,
115 brass bands perform....
Annual rose-show began.

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10 July,

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North wing restored and reopened to the public.. 15 Feb. 1863 An Aeronautical Exhibition opened... .25 June, Protestant meeting to defend the Irish Church..17 Aug. Reception of the vicomte de Lesseps. ......... . . . . . . . .July, 1870 Death of Mr. Robert K. Bowley, fourteen years manager of the company. ...25 Aug. Successful Handel festival 19, 21, 23 June, 1871

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The grand-duke Wladimir of Russia entertained here by the prince of Wales.. .26 June, Cat-show, native and foreign.. ........13 July-2 Dec. Dividend on stock, 1 per cent. ..Dec. Inauguration of the great aquarium by prof. Owen.. Jan. 1872 Lecture by prof. Flower.. 12 Jan. Bird-show opens ... 10 Feb.

Thanksgiving festival for the recovery of the prince of ...1 May, .....4 June,

Wales..

Dog-show opens..

tutional Associations..

Meeting of National Union of Conservative and Consti ..24 June, National music meetings; competition and concerts, 27 June-6 July, Scottish southern gathering; highland sports...25 July, National cat-show.

Bird-show..

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26-29 Oct. .22 Feb. 1873

Grand commemoration of the opening of the palace; the

Paxton memorial unveiled..

10 June,

30 June, 3 July, ..3, 5, 8, 10, 12 July,

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Visits of the shah of Persia.... National music meetings. Resignation of Mr. George Grove, many years secretary, announced Sept.; succeeded by capt. Flood Page. Dec. Visit of the czar. 16 May, 1874 .22, 24, 26 June, .19 June, 1875 1-10 July,

Handel festival; successful..

Visit of the sultan of Zanzibar. National music meeting..

....

Visit of the king and queen of Greece and prince and
princess of Wales.
Great clock completed..
Handel festival..

Handel festival; successful..

lives lost..

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19 July, 1876 Nov. .25, 27, 29 June, 1877 21, 23, 25 June, 1880

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Great damage done by bursting of a water tank; no International woollen exhibition opened by the duke of Connaught... .2 June, 1881

Crystallography is the science relating to the symmetrical forms assumed by substances passing from the liquid to the solid state. Romé de Lisle published his "Essai de Cristallographie" in 1772; but René-Just Hauy is regarded as the founder of the modern school of crystallography (1801).- Whewell. Dana, Dufresnoy, and Miller are eminent modern writers on this subject.

Ctesiphon (afterwards AL MADAYN), on the Tigris, the splendid capital of Parthia, was taken by Traj in in 116, and by Alexander Severus (who made 100,000 captives), 198. Its defences deterred Julian from the siege, 363. It was taken by Omar and the Saracens, 637, and utterly destroyed, and Cufa, near it, built with the remains.

Cuba (its original name), an island (West Indies) discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, 28 Oct. 1492; settled by Velasquez, 1511-12. Population, 1870, 765,000 whites; 250,000 colored, 368,000 slaves; in 1877, about 1,400,000.

The buccaneer Morgan took the Havana; see Bucca

neers....

1669 A British expedition lands and remains. 20 July-20 Nov. 1741 The Havana taken by admiral Pococke and lord Albemarle, 1762; restored at the peace of Paris..... 10 Feb. 1763 "Lone Star" society (which see), for the acquisition of Cuba, etc., formed..

1843 The president of the United States (Taylor) published a strong proclamation, denouncing the object of the invaders... ..11 Aug. 1849 Expedition of gen. Lopez and a large body of Americans, with the view of wresting this island from the dominion of Spain, landed at Cuba (defeated)................17 May, 1850

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31 May, 1854

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Messrs. Buchanan, Mason, and Soulé, United States envoys, met at Ostend and Aix-la-Chapelle, and reported, recommending the purchase of Cuba... .Oct. The Spanish minister in cortes declared that the sale of Cuba would be "the sale of Spanish honor itself," 19 Dec. Insurrection of Creoles, headed by Carlos Manuel de Cespedes, for expulsion of Spaniards after the revolution in Spain; volunteer force raised to aid Lersundi, the governor.. .Sept.-Nov. 1868 A filibusters' attack on Cuba repelled.. 17 May, 1869 The United States decide not to recognize the insurgents as belligerents... June, 1870 About 2000 lives lost by a hurricane.......about 14 Oct. The captain-general De Rodas resigned, and left Cuba, 15 Dec. Insurrection subdued, but enduring; the volunteers very insubordinate; military despotism; occasional reign of terror; massacres.. Jan.-Nov. 1871 Don Gonzalo Castañon murdered by Cubans; his tomb desecrated by medical students, 25 Nov.; eight tried and shot at Havana.... 27 Nov.

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Mr. F. Delano sent by the United States government to
report on the state of Cuba...
.9 Dec. 1872

The merciless war still continues; no quarter given, Dec. 66
Suspended hostilities through the establishment of the
Spanish republic...
Much fighting reported...

. Feb. 1873 ..June,

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The Virginius, American schooner, while conveying men and arms from New York to the insurgents in Cuba, is captured by the Spanish gunboat Tornado, 31 Oct.; conveyed to Cuba; above 90 insurgents and sailors (some British and Americans) tried; many insurgents and about 6 British and 30 Americans shot...4-7 Nov. After much correspondence the Virginius was surrendered to the Americans, 19 Dec.; she foundered on her way to New York.. ..about 26 Dec. Bascones defeats the marquis Santa Lucia and 5000 insurgents at Naranjo... .... Feb. 1874 Gen. Martinez Campos appointed governor, with plenary powers.. .Oct. 1876 The struggle going on, but more subdued......summer, 1877 A "Cuban league" in the United States, said to be formed to obtain recognition of the insurgents as belligerents, etc..... ...Sept. Estrada, the Cuban president, said to be captured...Oct. Reported surrender of many insurgents.. .23, 24 Dec. Surrender of the insurgent government; end of the insurrection announced.. ...21 Feb. 1878 Amnesty declared, with freedom to slaves presenting themselves before 31 March (slavery to be abolished gradually).... . March, 14 June, Insurrection; state of siege; amnesty promised. 19 Sept. 1879 Insurgents totally defeated at Placeta; announced. 3 Dec. Bill for gradual emancipation of the slaves passed by the Spanish senate, 21 Dec. 1879; by chambers of deputies (230-10, 21 Jan.); promulgated... .......18 Feb. 1880 Cuba reported tranquil..... ....Sept.

Campos and Jovellar enter Havana triumphantly,

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Cubit, a measure by which the ark of Noah was measured (2448 B.C.). It was the distance from a man's elbow to the extremity of the middle finger. According to Arbuthnot, the Hebrew cubit was a little under 22 inches, the Roman cubit 17 inches, and the English

cubit 18 inches.

Cucking-stool (or DUCKING-STOOL), for shrews: one at Kingston-on-Thames was used in April, 1745; and another at Cambridge in 1780.-Chambers.

Cucumbers, noticed by Virgil and other ancient poets, were brought to England from the Netherlands about 1538.

Cuddalore (India), on the coast of the Carnatic, was acquired by the English in 1681. It was reduced by the French in 1758, but recaptured in 1760 by sir Eyre Coote. Again lost in 1781, it underwent a destructive siege by the British under gen. Stuart, in 1783, which was continued until peace was signed, when it reverted to them, 1784.

Cuenca, New Castile, Spain, 80 miles from Madrid, attacked by the Carlists 13 July, and captured 14 July, 1874. The garrison and the inhabitants were barbarously used. Gen. Lopez Pinto rescued the prisoners, July.

Cuirass, a part of Greek and Roman armor.

19

skins of beasts, and afterwards tanned leather, formed the cuirass of the Britons until the Anglo-Saxon era. It was afterwards made of iron and brass. The cuirass was worn by cavalry in the reign of Henry III., 1216 et seq. Napoleon had several regiments of cavalry wearing cuirasses, and most European armies have picked corps of such.

Culdees, said to derive their name from cultores Dei, worshippers of God, monks in Scotland and Ireland, who had their principal seat at St. Andrew's. It is said that in 1185, at Tipperary, there was a Culdean abbey whose monks were "attached to simple truth and pure Christian worship, and had not yet conformed to the reigning superstition." They were eventually subjected to the papal yoke.

Cullen's-wood (Ireland). An English colony from Bristol, inhabiting Dublin, went to divert themselves at Cullen's - wood, when the O'Byrnes and O'Tooles fell upon them, and destroyed 500 men, besides women and children, 30 March, 1209 (on Easter, afterwards called Black, Monday).

Culloden, near Inverness, where the English, under William, duke of Cumberland, defeated the Scotch, headed by the young Pretender, the last of the Stuarts, 16 April, 1746. The Scots lost 2500 men in killed upon the field, or in the slaughter which occurred in the pursuit, while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. Prince Charles, who wandered among the wilds of Scotland for six months, while 30,000l. were offered for taking him, at length escaped from Uist to Morlaix, and died at Rome 3 March, 1788.

Culture, according to Mr. Matthew Arnold ("The Apostle of Culture "), is the knowledge of "the best that has been thought and said in the world" (1880). Cultur-Kampf, see Kultur-Kampf.

Culverin, cannon so called from the French couleuvrine, said to have been introduced into England from a French model in 1534. It was originally five inches and a quarter diameter in the bore, and carried a bali of eighteen pounds.--Bailey.

Cumæ (S. Italy), a Greek colony, 1050 B.C., said to have been the residence of the ancient Sibyl, was taken by the Samnites 420 B.C., and annexed by the Romans 338 B.C.

DUKES.

Cumberland, a N.W. county of England, was granted to Malcolm I. of Scotland in 945, by king Edmund, "on condition that he should be his fellowworker." It was seized by William I., but restored to Malcolm III., "who became his man," 1072. William the Lion, after his defeat at Alnwick, resigned Cumberland to Henry II., and it was finally annexed to England in 1237. 1726. William Augustus, second son of George II., died 13 Oct. 1766. Henry Frederic, son of Frederic, prince of Wales, died 18 Sept. 1790. 1799. Ernest Augustus, fifth son of George III.; became king of Hanover, 20 June, 1837; died 18 Nov. 1851. 1851. George V., the ex-king of Hanover; died 12 June, 1878. 1878. Ernest Augustus, son; born 21 Sept. 1845; married princess Thyra of Denmark, 21 Dec. 1878. Issue, MaryLouisa, born 11 Oct. 1879; son, 28 Oct. 1880. "Cumberland, THE," see Naval Battles, 1811.

1765.

Cumulative Vote, in parliamentary elections, proposed by Mr. Robert Lowe,* 4 July, during the debates on the reform bill, and rejected 5 July, 1867, by 314 to 173. By the act passed 15 Aug. 1867 (30 & 31 Vict. c. 102), it was enacted that at a contested election for any county or borough represented by three members, no person shall vote for more than two candidates. The

resented by more than two members, and having more than "At any contested election for a county or borough rep

one seat vacant, every voter shall be entitled to a number of votes equal to the number of vacant seats, and may give all such votes to one candidate, or may distribute them among The the candidates as he thinks fit."

cumulative vote was used in the election of the London school board, 29 Nov. 1870.

Cunaxa, in Mesopotamia, near the Euphrates, where Cyrus the younger was defeated and slain by his brother Artaxerxes II., against whom he had conspired (401 B.C.), narrated in Xenophon's "Anabasis." His Greek auxiliaries were successful; see Retreat of the Greeks.

Cursitor Baron. This office, formerly attached to the court of exchequer, was abolished in 1856, on the death of the right hon. George Bankes.

Curtatone, near Mantua (N. Italy). Here the Austrians, under Radetzky, crossed the Mincio, and defeated the Italians after a severe conflict, 29 May, 1848.

Cushee Pieces, invented by Richard Leake, the master-gunner of the Royal Prince man-of-war, renownCuneiform Inscriptions (from cuneus, Latined for bravery shown in the engagement with the Dutch for a wedge), in characters resembling arrow-heads, in- admiral Van Tromp, in 1673. scribed on bricks or clay tablets, found at Babylon, Behistun, etc., have lately been deciphered by English and

Custom is a law not written (lex non scripta), estabforeign scholars, who date some of them as far back as from lex scripta, or the written law. lished by long usage and consent, and is distinguished It is the rule of 2000 B.C.; see Assyria, Babylon, Behistun. law when it is derived from 1189 downwards. Sixty Cunnersdorf (in Prussia). On 12 Aug. 1759, Fred-years' custom is binding in the civil law, and forty years' erick II., king of Prussia, with 50,000 men, attacked the in ecclesiastical cases. Austrian and Russian army of 90,000 in their camp near this place, and at first gained considerable advantages; but pursuing them too far, the Austrians and Russians rallied, and gained a complete victory. The Prussians lost 200 pieces of cannon and 30,000 men in killed and

wounded.

Cupola Ships, see Navy of England, 1861.

1274. The customs were farmed to sir Thomas Smith

land, under Ethelred II. in 979. Customs were collected upon merchandise in EngThe king's claim to them by grant of parliament was established 3 Edw. I. for annual sums varying from 14,000l. to 50,000%. in the reign of Elizabeth.-Stow. They were farmed by Charles II. for 390,000l. in 1666.-Davenant. In 1671 commisCupping, a mode of blood-letting. The skin is sioners were appointed. The customs were consolidated scarified by lancets, and a glass cup in which the air has by Mr. Pitt in 1787. Between 1820 and 1830 so many been rarified by heat is immediately applied to it, when reductions and consolidations were made in the customs the blood usually flows into the cup. This operation was department, that above a quarter of a million was saved well known to the ancients, and is described by Hip- in salaries, though the work had enormously increased. pocrates (413 B.C.) and Celsus (20 B.C.). It was com--Acts consolidating the customs duties were passed in mon in England about 1820.

Curaçoa, an island in the Caribbean sea, settled by the Spaniards about 1527, was seized by the Dutch in 1634. In 1800 the French, settled on part of this island, quarrelled with the Dutch, who surrendered it to a British frigate. It was restored to the Dutch in 1802, taken from them by the British in 1807, and again restored in 1814.

1853, 1854, and 1860, whereby the number of articles in
the tariff and the amount of the customs were greatly
reduced. Many changes have been made since; see
Revenue. The disqualification of custom-house officers
and officers of excise from voting for the election of mem-
bers of parliament in 1782 was removed in 1867-8.
The laws respecting the customs were amended by an act
passed 21 Aug. 1871, and consolidated by acts passed,
Customs in

1580..
1592..

1614..
1622..

1684

1720.

Curates were of early appointment as coadjutors in the Catholic church, and are mentioned in England in the seventh century. Among the acts passed for the relief of this laborious class of the clergy are the 12th Anne, 1713, and 36th, 53d, and 58th Geo. III., and especially the 1642. beneficent act, 2 Will. IV., Oct. 1831. It appeared by parliamentary reports on ecclesiastical revenues that there were, in 1831, 5230 curates in England and Wales, whose stipends amounted to 424,6951. The greatest number of curates in one diocese was Lincoln, 629; and The Pastoral Aid the smallest that of St. Asaph, 43. Society was established in 1836; the Society for Promoting the Employment of Additional Curates, in 1837; the Curates' Augmentation Fund, 1866.

On

Curfew Bell (from the French couvre feu) was revived or introduced in England by Will. I. 1068. the ringing of the curfew at eight o'clock in the evening all fires and candles were to be extinguished, under a severe penalty.-Rapin. The curfew was abolished 1 Hen. I. 1100. A so-called curfew bell was rung at West Ham so lately as Nov. 1859.

Curiatii, see Rome, 669 B.C.

Curling, a Scotch national game with stones on the ice, said to have been introduced from the Low Countries in the sixteenth century. The Duddingstone curling club was instituted 1795. The royal Caledonian curling club, founded in 1838, owns a large artificial pond at Strathallan, Perthshire.

Curragh, see Kildare.

Currants, from Corinth, whence, probably, the tree was first brought to us about 1533. The name is also given to a small kind of dried grape, brought from the Levant and Zante. The duty on these currants (448. 4d. per cwt. in 1834) has been reduced to 78. The hawthorn currant (Ribes oxyacanthoides) came from Canada in 1705.

Currency Acts. Those of sir Robert Peel were passed in 1819 and in 1844.

24 July, 1876 Customs in year ending 31 March,

.£14,000

..50,000 1860.

.148,000 1864.

168,000 1867.

.500,000 1869.. 530,000 1870.. .1,555,600 1872.. .2,000,000 1873..

.£24,391,084

23,234,356

.22,299,306

.22,424,000

21, 499,843

20,225,892

1748..

.20,976,236

1808..

.9,973,240 1874..

20,323,325

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The customs in Ireland, a sack of wool, 3d.; a last of
hides, 6d.; a barrel of wine, 2d..
.1224
The customs business of Ireland was transferred to the
London board..
...6 Jan. 1830

Custom-house. A custom house was erected in London
on a large scale, 1304; and a yet larger in 1559; burned
down in 1666; a new one, built by Charles II., burned
down in 1718, again rebuilt; and once more burned down,
and immense property and valuable records destroyed,

12 Feb. 1814 ..12 May, 1817

The present edifice opened...
Dublin custom-house commenced in 1781; opened in
1791. The eastern wing of its warehouse was destroy-
ed by fire, with property to the amount of 400,000l.
9 Aug. 1833

Customs Parliament, see Zollverein.
Custos Rotulorum, keeper of the rolls or records
of the sessions of the peace, previously nominated by the
lord chancellor, was in 1545 directed to be appointed by
a bill signed by the king. The act was confirmed in
1689.

Custozza, near Verona (N. Italy). Here the Italians were defeated by marshal Radetzky, 23 July, 1848; and here they were again defeated, 24 June, 1866, after a series of desperate attacks on the Austrian army. The Italians were commanded by their king, Victor Emmanuel, and the Austrians by the archduke Albrecht. The Italian loss was computed to be 720 killed, 3112 wound

ed, and 4315 missing; the Austrian loss, 960 killed, 3690 | lished in 1877 for promotion of literature and the arts in wounded, and nearly a thousand prisoners. The Italians Wales. soon recrossed the Mincio.

Cymri or KYMRI (hence Cambria), the great Celtic family to which the Britons belonged, and which came from Asia and occupied a large part of Europe about 1500 B.C. About A.D. 640 Dyvnwal Moelmud reigned 'King of the Cymry;" see Wales.

66

Cutch (Kachh), W. India, a principality under the government of Bombay. In consequence of the depredations of the natives, the East India government resorted to hostile measures, which resulted in a stringent treaty with the rao in Jan. 1816. In 1819 he was deCynics, a sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes posed for misgovernment, and replaced by his infant son, (about 396 B.C., Diog. Laert., Clinton), who professed to supported by a British contingent. The traffic in chil- contemn all worldly things, even sciences, except moraldren, detected in Dec. 1835, was suppressed by the Brit-ity; and lived in public with little shame. Diogenes, ish. Many persons perished by an earthquake in July, the eminent cynic, died 323 B.C.

1819.-Thornton.

Cutlery, see Steel.

Cuttack (Katak), E. India, a British province ceded to the E. I. company in 1803. Cuttack, the capital, was taken by col. Harcourt, 14 Oct. same year. The Mahrattas conquered it in 1750.—Thornton.

Cutting-out Machines. Wearing apparel was first cut out by machinery in England by Messrs. Hyams in 1853. The machine, invented by Mr. Frederick Osbourn, consists of a reciprocating vertical knife working through a slot in the table that supports the pile of cloth to be cut. The cloth being pressed up to the edge of the knife by the attendant, the knife will sever it in the direction of the lines marked on the upper layer. Cuzco, capital of Peru, was entered by Pizarro in Nov. 1533, and taken by him in Aug. 1536, after five months' siege.

Cyanogen, a colorless gas (composed of nitrogen and carbon), irritating to the nose and eyes, derived from Prussian blue, was first obtained in the free state by Gay Lussac in 1815, being the first instance of the isolation of a compound radical.

Cycle of the sun, the twenty-eight years before the days of the week return to the same days of the month; that of the moon is nineteen lunar years and seven intercalary months, or nineteen solar years. The cycle of Jupiter is sixty years. The Paschal cycle, or the time of keeping Easter, was first calculated for the period of 532 years by Victorius, 463.- Blair. See Metonic Cycle, Calippic Period.

Cyclones, circular whirlwinds, or hurricanes, common in the East and West Indian and Chinese seas,

vary from 200 to 500 miles in diameter. Many details respecting them will be found in Reid's "Law of Storms," published 1838.

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By a great cyclone immense damage was done on sea and land; about 100 ships are said to have been lost, and about 60,000 persons perished, and whole towns nearly destroyed; see Calcutta.. ...5 Oct. 1864 Captain Watson, of the Clarence, observing the barometer falling, and foretelling the approach of the cyclone, saved his ship by steering out of its range.. Great cyclone in the Bahamas, at Nassau, New Providence; above 600 houses and many churches and other buildings thrown down; between 60 and 70 persons killed, and a great many ships dismantled....1, 2 Oct. 1866 Another cyclone at Calcutta, not so destructive...1 Nov. 1867 A cyclone desolated Antigua, St. Kitts, and other isles; religious and manufacturing buildings destroyed, and thousands made homeless. .21 Aug. 1871 Destructive cyclone near Madras; ships lost......1 May, 1872 Destructive cyclone, S. E. Bengal; Calcutta barely escaped; about 215,000 persons perished........31 Oct. 1876 (See Virgin Isles.)

Cyclopædia, see Encyclopædia.

Cyclopean Masonry, a term given to very ancient buildings in Greece, Italy, and Asia Minor, probably the work of the Pelasgi, more than 1000 B.C. Cyder, see Cider.

Cynoscephalæ (dogs' heads, so named from the shape of the heights), in Thessaly, where Pelopidas and the Thebans defeated Alexander, tyrant of Pheræ and the Thessalians, 364 B.C. Pelopidas was slain. Here also the consul Flaminius totally defeated Philip V. of Macedon, 197 B.C., and ended the war.

Cypress, Cupressus sempervirens, a tree found in the isle of Cyprus. The Athenians buried heroes in coffins made of this wood, of which Egyptian mummy-chests were also fabricated. The ancients planted it in cemeteries. The cypress was brought to England about 1441. The deciduous cypress, C. disticha, came from North America before 1640.

Cyprus, a large island in the Mediterranean, near the coasts of Asia Minor and Syria; present capital Levkosia or Nikosia; seaports, Larnaka and Famagosta. Here the ancients found copper (as Cyprium), silver, and with trees in ancient times; and under Venice its comprecious stones. The country was fertile, and abounded merce was important. The population, two thirds Greek, is now about 135,000: under Venice, said to have been a million, probably exaggerated.

The Phoenician colonists introduced the worship of Ashtaroth (the Greek Astarte or Aphrodite, the Roman Venus).

Conquered by Amasis, king of Egypt; revolted at the invasion of Cambyses, and submitted to Persia.... ..... B. C. 525 Revolted, and subjected....

of Salamis..

500-499

Partly independent under Evagoras and Nicocles, kings
Supported Alexander the Great.

Taken from Demetrius by Ptolemy of Egypt..
Became a Roman province..

Visited by Paul and Barnabas (Acts xiii.).
Great revolt of the Jews..
Seized by the Arabs, 646; recovered by Greeks.
Isaac Comnenus, king..

.387 et seq.

333

295

58

..A.D. 45

117

648

1184

Seized by Richard I. of England, 1191; given by him to

1192

1866 et seq.

Guy de Lusignan, as king. "Order of the Sword" established (ceased with 8th king), 1195 Guy's descendant, Catherine de Cornaro, sold it to Venice, 1487 Cyprus conquered by the Turks with great barbarity...1570–1 Insurrections suppressed, 1764; with massacre... 1823 Gen. di Cesnola, a Genoese, the American consul, by excavations discovers many Babylonian, Egyptian, Phonician, and Greek gold and silver ornaments, and other relics (sold to the Metropolitan Museum, New York), His work, "Cyprus: its Ancient Cities, Tombs, and Temples," published in London and New York.......Dec. 1877 The island given up to Great Britain for administration by the Anglo-Turkish convention.. .4 June, 1878 Possession taken by admiral lord John Hay, 12 July; by sir Garnet J. Wolseley, as lord high commissioner, 22 July, Much sickness, with deaths, reported... ...Aug. -Sept. Orders for the government by a lord high commissioner, Sir G. J. Wolseley's decree for compulsory labor on pubgiven at court.. .14 Sept.

lic works, dated..

66 46

64

.16 Dec. 46

He is sent to S. Africa; succeeded by sir Robert Biddulph...

June, 1879

The British buy the government lands, except the Sul-
tan's estates, early in..
Increased general prosperity reported (in Blue Book),
Locusts dreaded........

Cyr, St., near Versailles. was founded by Madame de here she died, 15 April, 1719. college in 1803.

Aug. 1880 .May, 1881 Here a college for ladies Maintenon, in 1686, and It was made a military

Cymbal, the oldest known musical instrument, made of brass. Xenophon says the cymbal was invented by Cybele, and used in her feasts about 1580 B.C. Cymmrodorion Society was established in Sept. 1751, to instruct the ignorant and relieve distressed Cyrenaic Sect, founded by Aristippus the Elder, Welsh. It was suspended in 1781, and revived 24 June, 365 B.C. They taught that the supreme good of man is 1820, for literary purposes. The society was re-estab-pleasure, particularly that of the senses; and that even

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