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guese disbelieved his death and long expected his re- | 1120. The British man-of-war Victory, of 100 guns and turn; this led to the appearance of five impostors. 1160 men, was wrecked here, 5 Oct. 1744; the admiral, sir John Balchen, and all his crew, perished. Through this strait the French escaped after their defeat at La Hogue by admirals Russell and Rooke, 19 May, 1692. The construction of a breakwater, in order to make Alderney a naval station, was begun in 1852, and after having cost 1,337,100%., was suspended by parliament in 1871. In 1874 the harbor and lands were transferred from the control of the board of trade to that of the admiralty and the war department.

Alchemy, the forerunner of chemistry; its chief objects being the discovery of the philosopher's stone (which was to effect the transmutation of metals into gold), an alkahest, or universal menstruum, and the elixir of life.* The alchemists assert that their founder was Hermes Trismegistus (thrice greatest), an ancient Egyptian king.— Pliny says the emperor Caligula was the first who prepared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left it off, because the charge exceeded the profit.

Zosimus wrote on the subject about 410.

The Arabians cultivated alchemy and were followed (in the
thirteenth century) by Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, Aqui-
nas, Raymond Lullius, Basil Valentine (born 1394), Paracel-
sus (died 1541), and others.

In 1401 the craft of multiplying gold and silver was made fel-
ony by 5 Hen. IV. c. 4, which act was repealed in 1689.
A license for practising alchemy with all kinds of metals and
minerals was granted to one Richard Carter, 1476.-Rymer's
Fœdera.

Dr. Price, of Guildford, in 1782 published an account of his
experiments, and brought specimens of gold to the king,
affirming that they were made by means of a red and white
powder. Being a fellow of the Royal Society, he was re-
quired, under pain of expulsion, to repeat his experiments
before Messrs. Kirwan and Wolfe (some say Higgins); but
after much equivocation and delay he took poison and died,

Aug. 1783.

Aldershot Camp, on a moor near Farnham, about 35 miles from London. In April, 1854, the War-office, having obtained a grant of 1,000,000l., purchased 4000 acres of land for a permanent camp for 20,000 men. Additional land purchased in 1856.

Barracks since erected for 4000 infantry, 1500 cavalry, and
several batteries of artillery. Great improvements in mili-
tary cookery introduced (see Cookery) under the superin-
tendence of capt. John Grant, 1857.

Visited by the queen, 18, 19 April, 1856.
The troops returned from the Crimea, reviewed by her, 7, 16
July, 1856.
About 15,000 men were stationed here, 1859.
Cost of the camp, said to be 1,291,5311. up to Feb. 1860.
An industrial and fine-art exhibition, furnished by officers
and men and their wives, opened 29 June; closed 14 July,
1864.
Camp set up for 40,000 men to execute military manœuvres,
Aug., Sept. 1871. Many horses broke away through a fright,
30 Aug. 1871.

Review of 14,000, etc., by the queen, 5 July, 1872.
Summer manoeuvres here, 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877.
Review by the queen, 13 May, 1878.

Ale, BEER, AND WINE are said to have been invented
Ale was known as a beverage at least in
Herodotus ascribes the first discovery of the

404 B.C.

Alcohol. Pure spirit of wine or hydrated alcohol is said to have been obtained by the distillation of fermented liquors by Abucasis in the twelfth century; and the dehydration of this liquor to have been partially efAldine Press, that of Aldo Manuzio (Aldus Manufected by Raymond Lullius in the thirteenth century by tius) at Venice, where were printed many of the first carbonate of potassium. Alcohol has never been re-editions of the Greek, Latin, and Italian classics, comduced to the solid state, but becomes viscid at very low mencing in 1494 with Museus. temperatures. In 1820, Faraday and Hennell obtained traces of alcohol by passing olefiant gas (bicarburetted hydrogen) through sulphuric acid; and in 1862 this by Bacchus. process was examined and confirmed by Berthelot; see Distillation, Spirits, Brandy, Gin, Rum. About 250 med-art_of_brewing barley-wine to Isis, the wife of Osiris, ical men, including the president of the Royal College and a beverage of this kind is mentioned by Xenophon, 401 B.C. The Romans and Germans very early learned of Physicians, and many hospital officials, issued a cautionary declaration concerning the use of alcohol in med- from the Egyptians the process of preparing a liquor from corn by means of fermentation.-Tacitus. Aleicine, Dec. 1871; see Temperance. houses are mentioned in the laws of Ina, king of Wessex. Booths were set up in England, 728, when laws were passed for their regulation. None but freemen were allowed to keep ale-houses in London, 13 Edw. I. 1285. They were further subjected to regulation by 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 25, 1551. By 1 James I. c. 9, 1603, one full quart of the best, and two quarts of small ale, were to be sold for one penny. Excise duty on ale and beer was imposed by the parliament in 1643, and continued by Charles II., 1660; repealed, 1 Will. IV. c. 51, 1830; see Porter, Wine, Victuallers.

Alcolea (Andulasia, S. Spain). Near the bridge a sharp engagement took place between the royalists under gen. Pavia y Lacy, marquis de Novaliches, and the insurgents under marshal Serrano, 27 Sept. 1868. The former was defeated, and, being severely wounded, surrendered 28 Sept. About 600 were killed on both

sides.

etc.

Al-coran, or AL-KORAN, see Korun, Mahometanism,

Alderman. The Saxon ealdorman was next to the king and frequently a viceroy; but after the settlement of the Danes the title was gradually displaced by that of earl. Aldermen in corporations are next in dignity to the mayor. They were appointed in London (where there are twenty-six) in 1242; and in Dublin (where there are twenty-four) in 1323. Aldermen chosen for life, instead of annually, 17 Rich. II. 1394. Present mode of election established, 11 Geo. I. 1725. Aldermen made justices of the peace, 15 Geo. II. 1741.

London aldermen are elected by the wards. In 1877 the court
of aldermen exercised their ancient right of veto against sir
John Bennett (thrice chosen alderman for the ward of
Cheap), and chose Mr. Edgar Breffitt, 23 Oct. 1877.

Alemanni, or ALL MEN (i. e. men of all nations), hence Allemand, German. A body of Suevi, who took this name, were defeated by Caracalla, 214. After several repulses, they invaded the empire under Aurelian, who subdued them in three battles, 271. They were again vanquished by Julian, 356, 357; by Jovinus, 368. They were defeated and subjugated by Clovis at Tolbiac (or Zulpich), 496. The Suabians are their descend

ants.

Alençon (N. France) gave title to a count and

duke.

1293.

1268-82. Peter, made COUNT by his father, king Louis IX. Charles I. of Valois, made COUNT by his brother, king Philip the Fair.

1325.

Charles II. (his son), killed at Creey.

1346.

Charles III. (his son), became a priest.
Peter, his brother.

Alderney (English Channel), with Jersey, etc., was acquired by William the Conqueror, 1066. The "Race" is celebrated for two fatal occurrences; William of Nor- 1361. mandy, son of Henry I. of England, and many young no- 1404. bles (140 youths of the principal families of France and 1415. Britain), were overtaken by a storm, and all lost, 25 Nov.

*M. Martin Ziegler patented a method of producing a "vital fluid" by combining nitrogen and carbon in a porous cell containing ammonia, immersed in a vessel filled with molasses. The current was to flow through silk threads attached to the vessel: about 1868.

1476.

1415.

John (his son), made DUKE in 1414; killed at Agincourt, John II. (his son), prisoner in England, 1424-9; intrigued against the French king; died in prison,

1470.

Charles IV. fled after the battle of Pavia in 1525, and died shortly after of chagrin. The duchy was annexed by the crown.

Aleppo (N. Syria), a large town named Beroa by

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B. C. 298

These works completed by his son, P. Philadelphus, and

233-222

his grandson, P. Euergetes
Alexandria taken by Julius Cæsar; when a library is

burned

47

Seleucus Nicator, about 299 B.C. The pachalic of Alep-dence of the Greek sovereigns of Egypt, the Ptolemies. po is one of the five governments of Syria. It was taken 323. Seventeen councils were held here, A.D. 231-633. by the Saracens, A.D. 638, who restored its ancient Ptolemy Soter erects the Museum, the Serapeum, the Pharos, and other edifices, and begins the library about name Haleb, or Chaleb; by Saladin, 1193; and sacked by Timour, Nov. 1400. Its depopulation by the plague has been frequent: 60,000 persons were computed to have perished by it in 1797; many in 1827. The cholera raged here in 1832. Aleppo suffered severely from the terrible earthquakes in 1822 and 1830, and has often been the scene of fanatical massacres. On 16 Oct. 1850, the Mahometans attacked the Christians, burning everything. Three churches were destroyed, five others plundered, and thousands of persons slain. The total loss of property amounted to about a million sterling; no interference was attempted by the pacha.

Alessandria, a city of Piedmont, built in 1168 under the name of Cæsar by the Milanese and Cremonese, to defend the Tanaro against the emperor, and afterwards named after pope Alexander III. It has been frequently besieged and taken. The French took it in 1796, but were driven out by Suwarrow, 21 July, 1799. They recovered it after the battle of Marengo, 14 June, 1800, and held it till 1814, when the strong fortifications erected by Napoleon were destroyed. These have been restored since June, 1856.

Aleutian Isles, in the N. Pacific Ocean, discovered by Behring, 1741; visited by Cook, 1778; and settled by Russians, 1785.

Alexander, ERA OF, dated from the death of Alexander the Great, 12 Nov. 323 B.C. In the computation of this era, the period of the Creation was considered to be 5502 years before the birth of Christ, and, in consequence, the year 1 A.D. was equal to 5503. This computation continued to the year A.D. 284, which was called 5786. In the next year (A.D. 285), which should have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and the date became 5777. This is still used in the Abyssinian era (which see). The date is reduced to the Christian era by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and after that time by subtracting 5492.

"Alexandra Case," see Trials, 1862-4.

Alexandra Park, Muswell Hill, London, N., purchased by a company, and named after the princess of Wales, was opened with a flower-show, 23 July, 1863. A portion of the Exhibition building of 1862 was to be erected here. The work proceeded rapidly in 1864, was suspended in 1865, recommenced in 1866, and completed

in 1873.

.Feb. 1872

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.30 June, 1 July, 1868
Horse-races first held here
The prospectus of a scheme to organize an institution re-
sembling the South Kensington Museum and the Crys-
tal Palace by means of a tontine (to cease 30 June,
22 July, 1871
1886) was issued.
The affairs were to be managed by "The Alexandra Pal-
ace and Muswell Hill Estate Management Company
(Limited)." Public lectures on the subject, Aug. 1871;
the company's affairs were wound up...
The purchase of the land and buildings for the public
..July,
proposed by the lord mayor and others..
The palace was opened with a grand concert, etc., 24
.9 June, 1873
May; destroyed by fire...
buried, 25
..21 Aug.
Whit-Mon-
..17 May,
day..
.29 July, 1876
Balfe memorial festival.
Petition for winding-up, 24 Oct. 1876; carried out ..Jan. 1877
The palace reopened (annual subscription, 108. 6d.).
10 May,

Two women, incautiously viewing the ruins,
June; bodies found..

The new building (386 by 184 feet) opened..
94,125 persons said to have entered the park,

1 May, 1875

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Arrival of Nubian hunters with elephants, rhinoceroses,
camels, dromedaries, buffaloes, zebras, ostriches, etc.
...7 Sept.-13 Oct.
(imported by Carl Hagenbeck)..
Opened by new proprietors (Mr. Willing and others) with
.17 May, 1880
new attractions..
.2 Aug.
..Nov.
.11 Feb. 1881
....June,

107,852 visitors (bank holiday)
Taken by Jones and Barber,
Put up for sale; unsold.
Varied entertainments...

66
64

44

Which Antony replaces by one brought from Pergamus.
The city restored by Adrian..
Massacre of the youth by Caracalla in revenge for an in-

sult.

.A. D.

Alexandria, supporting the usurper Achilleus, is taken
by Diocletian after a long siege..
Alexandria disturbed by the feuds between the Athana-

sians and Arians..

George of Cappadocia was killed, 362, and Athanasius
finally restored..

50,000 persons perish by an earthquake.
Paganism suppressed by Theodosius, when a second li-
brary is burned..
Alexandria captured by Chosroes II. of Persia..
And by Amrou, the general of the caliph Omar,* who or-
dered the library to be burned, whereby the baths were
.22 Dec.
supplied with fuel for six months..
Recovered by the Greeks; retaken by Amrou
Cairo founded by the Saracens; which tends to the decay
of Alexandria

Alexandria plundered by the Crusaders..
The French capture Alexandria...

36

122

215

297

321

363 365

390 616

640

644

969 1365

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Alexandrian Library, see under Alexandria. Alexandrian Schools or PHILOSOPHY. first school arose soon after the foundation of AlexanIt flourished under the patronage of the It included Euclid (300), dria, 332 B.C. Ptolemies till about 100 B.C. Archimedes (287-212), Apollonius (250), Hipparchus (150), and Hero (150). The second school arose about A.D. 140, and lasted till about 400. Its most eminent members were Ptolemy, the author of the Ptolemaic system (150), Diophantus the arithmetician (200), and Pappus the geometer (350).

Alexandrines, verses of twelve syllables, first written by Alexander of Paris, about 1164, and since called after him. The last line of the Spenserian stanza is an Alexandrine. In Pope's "Essay on Criticism" this verse is thus happily exemplified :

:

"A needless Alexandrine ends the song,

That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along." The longest English poem wholly in Alexandrine verse is Drayton's "Polyolbion," published 1612-22,

Severe fighting Alexinatz, a town in Servia. took place here between the Turks and Servians, Aug.Sept. 1876. The town, headquarters of the Servians, was captured 31 Oct. This led to an armistice and peace; see Turkey.

Gen. Baillie, Alford (N. Scotland), BATTLe of. with a large body of covenanters, was defeated by the marquess of Montrose, 2 July, 1645.

It is also attributed

The saying of Omar-"That if the books agreed with the Alexandria (Egypt), the walls whereof were six book of God, they were useless; if they disagreed, they were pernicious"-is denied by Mahometans. miles in circuit, was founded by Alexander the Great, to Theophilus, archbishop of Alexandria (390), and to cardinal 332 B.C., who was buried here 322. It became the resi-Ximenes (1500).

Algebra: Diophantus, said to be the inventor, wrote upon it probably between the third and fifth centuries. It was cultivated in the ninth century by the Arabs, who brought it into Spain; and in Italy by Leonardo Bonaccio of Pisa, in 1220. In 1494 Luca Paciolo published the first printed book on Algebra in Europe.Serret. Some of the algebraic signs were introduced either by Christophe Rudolph (1522-6) or Michael Stifelius of Nuremberg, 1544, and others by Francis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into general use.— Moréri. Jerome Cardan published his "Ars Magna," containing his rule, 1545. Thos. Harriot's important discoveries appeared in his "Artis Analytica Praxis," 1631. Descartes applied algebra to geometry about 1637. The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of the doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. Dean Peacock's "Algebra " is a first-class work.

Algeria, see Algiers.

Algesiras, or OLD GIBRALTAR (S. Spain). Here the Moors entered Spain in 711, and held it till taken by Alfonso XI., March, 1344.-Two engagements took place here between the English fleet under sir James Saumarez and the United French and Spanish fleets, 6 and 12 July, 1801. In the first the enemy was victorious; but the British honor was redeemed in the latter conflict, the San Antonio, 74 guns, being captured. Two Spanish ships fired on each other by mistake, and took fire; of 2000 men on board, 250 were saved by the Eng

lish.-Alison.

Algiers, now ALGERIA, N. W. Africa; part of the ancient Mauritania, which was conquered by the Romans, 46 B.C.; by the Vandals, A.D. 439; recovered for the empire by Belisarius, 534; and subdued by the Arabs about 690. Population of Algeria in 1866, 2,921,146; 1872, 2,146,225; 1875, 2,448,691.

The town Algiers founded by the Arabs near the site of
Icosium
..about 935
Becoming the seat of the Barbary pirates, captured by
Ferdinand of Spain, 1509; retaken by Horuc and Hay-
dreddin Barbarossa, and made the capital of a state;
governed by a dey, nominally subject to Turkey.....1516-20
The emperor Charles V. loses a fine fleet and army in an
expedition against Algiers..

Algiers terrified into pacific measures by Blake, 1655; by
Du Quesne..

1541

.1683-4 For continued piracy, the city successfully bombarded by the British fleet, under lord Exmouth .27 Aug. 1816

A new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was abolished

Algiers surrendered to a French armament under Bourmont and Duperré, after severe conflicts; the dey deposed, and the barbarian government wholly overthrown...

..5 July, 1830 The Arab chief Abd-el-Kader preaches a holy war, becomes powerful, and attacks the French, at first successfully.

He is recognized as emir of Mascara by treaty with the
French

The French ministry announce their intention to retain
Algiers permanently.

War renewed.

The French take Mascara.

.20 May,

1833

1834

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1835-6 .5 Dec. 1835

Marshal Clausel defeats the Arabs in two battles, and enters Mascara....

.8 Dec. 1836

Gen. Damremont killed in taking Constantina....13 Oct. 1837
Abdel Kader, thoroughly defeated, recognizes the
French supremacy.
.30 May,
...Dec. 1839

War renewed; French defeated..
Algeria annexed to France, and the emir declared a
rebel

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.Feb. 1842 He is defeated by Bugeaud at Isly. .14 Aug. 1844 500 Arabs in a cave at Karthani refuse to surrender; suffocated by smoke; said to have been ordered by gen. Pelissier 18 June, 1845 After a long struggle Abd-el-Kader surrenders to Lamoricière.. 23 Dec. 1847

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Alhambra, a Moorish palace and fortress near Granada, S. Spain, founded by Mohammed I. of Granada about 1253. It was surrendered to the Christians about Nov. 1491. The remains have been described in a magnificent work by Owen Jones and Jules Goury, published 1842-5. Washington Irving made the palace and its surroundings the subject of an exquisitely graceful and pleasing work, entitled The Alhambra, published 1832. A fac-simile of a part of this palace in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham was destroyed by the fire, 30 Dec. 1866.The Panopticon (which see) was opened as a circus, etc., under the name of Alhambra, in March, 1858. The Alhambra Palace Company, incorporated in July, 1863, applied for dissolution in Jan. 1865.

Ali, SECT OF (Shiites, or Fatimites). Ali married Mahomet's daughter Fatima, about 632, and became vizier, 613; and caliph, 655. Ali was called by the prophet "the lion of God, always victorious;" and the Persians follow the interpretation of the Koran according to Ali, while other Mahometans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. Ali was assassinated 23 Jan. 661.†

Alien and Sedition Laws. In 1798, when war between France and the United States was threatened, there were in the United States, by estimate, 30,000 Frenchmen organized in clubs, and 50,000 sympathizers with France, who had been British subjects. In apprehension of danger from these men, Congress passed an act June 25 authorizing the president to banish alien enemies at his discretion during the ensuing two years. Another act authorizing the president to apprehend and remove alien enemies was passed 6 July. These alien laws were never actively enforced. On 14 July, 1798, the sedition act became a law. This statute defined sedition and affixed severe penalties to offences of that nature. These alien and sedition laws were very unpopular, and the fall of the Federal party from power was due in part to the ill-feeling aroused by them.

Aliens, or FOREIGNERS, were banished in 1155, being thought too numerous. In 1343 they were excluded from enjoying ecclesiastical benefices. By 2 Rich. II. st. 1, 1378, they were much relieved. When they were to be tried criminally, the juries were to be half foreign

French, and Sardinian sovereigns. He visited Paris and London in Aug. 1865. He offered to serve in the French army in July, 1870.

He, with his suite, embarked at Oran, and landed at Tou-ers, if they so desired, 1430. They were restrained from lon on 28 Dec. following. He was removed to the castle of Amboise, near Tours, 2 Nov. 1848, and released from his confinement by Louis Napoleon, 16 Oct. 1852, after swearing on the Koran never to disturb Africa again. He was to reside henceforward at Broussa, in Asia Minor; but in consequence of the earthquake at that place, 28 Feb. 1855, he removed to Constantinople. In July, 1860, Abd-el-Kader held the citadel of Damascus, and there protected many of the Christians whom he had rescued from the massacres then in perpetration by the Turks. He received honors from the English,

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exercising any trade or handicraft by retail, 1483, a prohibition which was relaxed in 1663.

Alien priories (cells and estates belonging to foreign persons)
suppressed in England, 1414.

The Alien Act passed, Jan. 1793.
Act to register aliens, 1795.

Baron Geramb, a fashionable foreigner, known at court, or
dered out of England, 6 April, 1812.

Bill to abolish naturalization by the holding of stock in the
banks of Scotland, June, 1820.

New registration act, 7 Geo. IV. 1826. This last act was re-
pealed and another statute passed, 6 Will. IV. 1836.
The rigor of the alien laws was mitigated by acts passed in

1844 and 1847.

"Foreigners have reclaimed our marshes, drained our fens, fished our seas, and built our bridges and harbors."Smiles, 1861.

Their status defined by the Naturalization Act, passed 12 May,

1870.

of muriatic acid gas" (or hydrochloric acid) was passed, 28 July, 1863. It came into operation 1 Jan. 1864, proved successful, was re-enacted 1868, and amended 1874; see Chemical Works.

Alkmaer, see Bergen.

Allahabad (N.W. Hindostan), the "holy city" of the Indian Mahometans, situated at the junction of the rivers Jumna and Ganges. The province of Allahabad was successively subject to the sovereigns of Delhi and Oude, but in 1801 was partially and in 1803 wholly incorporated with the British possessions. By treaty here, Bengal, etc., was ceded to the English in 1765.— During the Indian mutiny several sepoy regiments rose and massacred their officers, 4 June, 1857; col. Neil marched promptly from Benares and suppressed the insurrection. In Nov. 1861, lord Canning made this city the capital of the N.W. provinces. Visit of the prince of Wales, 7 March, 1874.

Allatoona Pass (Ga.), BATTLE OF, fought 6 Oct. 1864. After his evacuation of Atlanta, Hood covered the road to Macon. Soon, however, he shifted southward to the West Point road, and then boldly pushed

By act of Congress passed 1798, alien enemies might be restrained, secured, or removed from the territories of the United States. An act of Congress relieving the children born abroad of United States fathers from alienage was passed 1854. In 1857, the United States attorneygeneral officially asserted that a United States citizen may renounce his citizenship. Aliens may readily nat-northward against Sherman's communications. Sheruralize themselves in the United States; see Naturalization. In the United States aliens may sue and be sued, but cannot serve a process, vote, or hold office. With respect to the power of aliens to hold real estate, the laws of the several States are not alike. Some impose restrictions, while others do not. The question of the inheritance of the property of aliens has been the subject of several treaties between the United States and foreign nations.

Aliwal, a village of N.W. India, the site of a battle, 28 Jan. 1846, between the Sikh army under sirdar Runjoor Singh Majeethea, 19,000 strong, supported by 68 pieces of cannon, and the British under sir Harry Smith, 12,000 men with 32 guns. The contest was obstinate, but ended in the defeat of the Sikhs, who lost nearly 6000 killed or drowned.

Alizarine, a crystalline body, the coloring principle of madder, discovered in it by Robiquet and Colin in 1831. Schunck showed that all the finest madder colors contained only alizarine combined with alkalies and fatty acids. Graebe and Liebermann obtained anthracene from alizarine in 1868, and alizarine from anthracene in 1869. The crystalline body anthracene was discovered in coal oils by Dumas, and Laurent in 1832; see Madder.

Aljubarrota, Portugal. Here John I. of Portugal defeated John I. of Castile, and secured his country's independence, 14 Aug. 1385; see Batalha.

Alkahest, see Alchemy.

Alkalies (from kali, the Arabic name for the plant from which an alkaline substance was first procured) are ammonia, potash, soda, and lithia. Black discovered the nature of the difference between caustic and mild alkalies in 1736.

The fixed alkalies, potash and soda, decomposed, and the met-
als potassium and sodium formed, by Humphry Davy at the
Royal Institution, London, 1807.

Dr. Ure invented an alkalimeter, 1816.
The manufacture of alkalies, very extensive in Lancashire and
Cheshire, is based on the decomposition of common salt
(chloride of sodium) by a process invented by a Frenchman
named Le Blanc, about 1792.

Mr. Losh obtained crystals of soda from brine about 1814. Va
rious modifications of these processes are now in use.
"Alkali works" are defined as works for the manufacture of
alkali, sulphates of soda, sulphate of potash, and in which
muriatic gas is evolved.

Mr. William Gossage's process for condensing muriatic acid
gas patented in 1836.

The ammonia process" of making soda invented by Dyer and Hemming in 1838; patents respecting it taken out by Solvay, 1863, 1867, 1872; Gossage, 1854; Schloesing, 1854, 1858; Young, 1871, 1872; Weldon, 1872, 1873; and by others. Mr. Walter Weldon received the French Lavoisier medal for his most important improvements in the alkali manufacture, July, 1877.

In consequence of the injury to vegetation produced by the alkali works in Lancashire and Cheshire, the Alkali Works Act for the more effectual condensation [of 95 per cent.]

man followed him with the bulk of his army, but on 6 Oct. had only reached Kenesaw. Hood, farther north, that day attacked Allatoona Pass, the most important station on the road, and stored with one and a half million of rations. Gen. Corse conducted the defence, and all day long held out against the assailing force, retaining his position until relief approached and Hood was compelled to withdraw. Corse was severely wounded.

Allegiance, see Oaths.

Allegory abounds in the Bible and in Homer: see Jacob's blessing upon his sons, Gen. xlix. (1689 B.C.), Psa. lxxx., and all the prophets. Spenser's Faerie Queene (1590) and Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress (1678) are allegories throughout. The Spectator (1711), by Addison, Steele, and others, abounds in allegories. The allegorical interpretation of the Scriptures is said to have begun with Origen in the third century; but see Gal. iv. 24.

Alleyn, see Almshouses and Dulwich.'

Allia (Italy), a small river flowing into the Tiber, where Brennus and the Gauls defeated the Romans, 16 July, 390 B.C. The Gauls sacked Rome and committed so much injury that the day was thereafter held to be unlucky (nefas), and no public business was permitted to be done thereon.

Alliance, TREATIES OF, between the high European powers. The following are the principal (see Coalitions, Conventions, Treaties, United Kingdom, etc.) :

ALLIANCE.

Of Leipsic...

Of Vienna...
The Triple..
Of Warsaw..
The Grand..

The Hague...
The Quadruple..

Of Vienna.
Of Versailles.
Germanic.
of Paris.
Of St. Petersburg.

.9 April, 1631 .27 May, 1657 .28 Jan. 1668 .31 March, 1683 ..12 May, 1689 .4 Jan. 1717 .2 Aug. 1718 .16 March, 1731 ...1 May, 1756 .23 July, 1785 .16 May, 1795 ..8 April, 1805 .14 March, 1812 .24 March, ...9 Sept. 1813 ..26 Sept. 1815 Constantinople), 12 March, 1854 ..3 April, Of Sardinia with the Western Powers (at Turin)...26 Jan. 1855 Of Sweden with the Western Powers.... .....19 Dec. Of Prussia and Italy.... ..June, 1866

Austrian...
Of Sweden...

Of Töplitz.
Holy Alliance...

of England, France, and Turkey (at
of England and France ratified....

44

66

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All-night Sittings, see Parliament, 1877 and 1881.

All-saints' Day (Nov. 1), or ALL-HALLOWS, a fes

tival said to have been begun by pope Boniface IV. about 607, celebrated in the Pantheon at Rome, and established by pope Gregory IV. (about 830) for the commemoration

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Most of the great daily journals in New York and other American cities publish almanacs containing elaborate and detailed political and industrial statistics.

The Stationers' Company claimed the exclusive right of

All-souls' Day (2 Nov.), a festival of the Roman Catholic church to commemorate the souls of the faith-publishing almanacs in virtue of letters patent from James I., ful, instituted, it is said, at Cluny about 993 or 1000.

"All the Talents" Administration, see Grenville Administrations.

Allobroges, Gauls, defeated by Q. Fabius Maximus, near the confluence of the Rhone and Saone, 121 B.C. Allotments, see Land, note.

Alma, a river in the Crimea, near which was fought a great battle on 20 Sept. 1854; see Russo-Turkish War and Crimea. The English, French, and Turkish army (about 57,000 men) moved out of their first encampment in the Crimea on 19 Sept., and bivouacked for the night on the left bank of the Bulganac. The Russians (commanded by prince Menschikoff), mustering 40,000 in fantry, had 180 field - pieces on the heights, and on the morning of 20 Sept. were joined by 6000 cavalry from Theodosia (or Kaffa). The English forces, under lord Raglan, consisted of 26,000 men; the French of 24,000, under marshal St.-Arnaud. At 12 o'clock the signal to advance was made; the river Alma was crossed, while prince Napoleon took possession of the village under the fire of the Russian batteries; and at 4, after a sanguinary fight, the allies were completely victorious. The enemy, utterly routed, threw away their arms and knapsacks in their flight, having lost about 5000 men, of whom 900 were made prisoners, mostly wounded. The loss of the British was 26 officers and 327 men killed, and 73 officers and 1539 men wounded (chiefly from the 23d, 7th, and 33d regiments); that of the French, 3 officers and 233 men killed, and 54 officers and 1033 men wounded. Total loss of the allies about 3400.

Almack's Assembly-rooms, King street, St. James's, London, at first very exclusive, were erected by a Scotchman named Almack, and opened 12 Feb. 1765. They are now termed Willis's Rooms, from the name of the present proprietors.

granting the privilege to them and the two universities; but the monopoly was broken up by a decision of the Court of Common Pleas in 1775. A bill to renew the privilege was lost in 1779.

The Stamp Duty on English almanacs first imposed in 1710, was abolished in Aug. 1834; since when almanacs have become innumerable, being issued by tradesmen with their goods.

Of Moore's (under the management of Henry Andrews, the able computer of the "Nautical Ephemeris") at one time upwards of 430,000 copies were annually sold. He died in 1820. Of Foreign Almanacs, the principal are the "Almanach de France," first published in 1699, and the "Almanach de Gotha," 1764.

Almanza (S.E. Spain). Here on 25 April (o. s. 14), 1707, the English, Dutch, and Portuguese forces under the earl of Galway were totally defeated by the French and Spanish commanded by James Fitzjames, duke of Berwick (illegitimate son of James II.). Most of the English were killed or made prisoners, having been abandoned by the Portuguese at the first charge.

Almeida (Portugal), a frontier town, captured by Massena, 27 Aug. 1810. The French entered Spain, leaving a garrison at Almeida; blockaded by the English 6 Almeida was retaken by Wellington (11 April, 1811. May), and Massena retired from Portugal.

Almenara, a village N.E. Spain, where, on 28 July, 1710, an English and German army defeated the Spanish army supporting Philip V., the grandson of Louis XIV. of France. Stanhope, the English general, killed the Spanish general, Amezaga, in single conflict; an act almost unexampled in modern warfare.

Almohades, Mahometan partisans, followers of Mohammed ben Abdalla, surnamed El-Mehedi, in Africa, about 1120. They subdued Morocco, 1145; entered Spain and took Seville, Cordova, and Granada, 1146–56; and founded a dynasty and ruled Spain till 1232, and

Africa till 1278.

Almanacs (from the Arabic al manah, to count). Almoner, an office anciently allotted to a dignified The Egyptians computed time by instruments; the Al- clergyman who gave the first dish from the royal table exandriaus had almanacs, and log calendars are ancient. to the poor, or an alms in money. By an ancient canon In the British Museum and universities are specimens all bishops were required to keep almoners. The grandof early almanacs. Michael Nostradamus, the astrologer, almoner of France was the highest ecclesiastical dignity wrote an almanac in the style of Merlin, 1556.---Dufres- in that kingdom before the revolution, 1789. Queen Prof. Augustus De Morgan's valuable "Book of Victoria's almoner (Rev. Dr. Wellesley, dean of Windsor, Almanacs, with an index of reference, by which the al-appointed 28 May, 1870), or the sub-almoner, distributes manac may be found for every year," was published in the queen's gifts on Maundy-Thursday (which see). March, 1851.* Among the earlier and more remarkable almanacs were

noy.

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Almoravides, Mahometan partisans in Africa, rose about 1050; entered Spain by invitation, 1086; were overcome by the Almohades in 1147.

Almshouses for aged and infirm persons have been 1497 erected by many public companies and benevolent indi1533 viduals, particularly since the abolition of religious houses at the Reformation in the sixteenth century. A list of 1652 them, with useful information, will be found in "Low's 1658 Charities of London," 1862; frequently republished.

1636 1644

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1679 1683

Moore's Almanac.

.1698 or 1713

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Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanac.

1732

Season on the Seasons...

1735

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Bancroft's almshouses, Mile End, were erected..

1735

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