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The meetings, publications, and petitions of these bodies were treated respectfully until the development of cottonplanting in the early part of the nineteenth century raised the value of slaves. Then began the struggle between the antislavery and proslavery interest, which culminated in the emancipation proclamation of 1 Jan. 1863. By the 13th article of amendment to the constitution, adopted by congress, 31 Jan. 1865, and proclaimed, after ratification by the requisite number of state legislatures, 18 Dec. 1865, slavery was forever prohibited "within the United States or any place subject to their jurisdiction." Aborigines (without origin), a name given to the earliest known inhabitants of Italy (whence came the Latini); now applied to the original inhabitants of any country. The Aborigines Protection Society was established in 1838. Reports on the condition of the aborigines in the British colonies were presented to parliament in 1834 and 1837. The society was active in 1874. Aboukir (Egypt), the ancient Canopus. In the bay Nelson defeated the French fleet, 1 Aug. 1798; see Nile. A Turkish army of 15,000 was defeated here by 5000 French under Bonaparte, 25 July, 1799. A British expedition to Egypt under general sir Ralph Abercromby landed here, and Aboukir surrendered to them after an obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French, 8 March, 1801; see Alexandria.

Abraham, ERA OF, used by Eusebius; so called from the patriarch Abraham, who died 1822 B.C. The era began 1 Oct. 2016 B.C. To reduce this era to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and three months.

Nicolas.

Abraham, HEIGHTS OF, near Quebec, Lower Canada. The French were defeated and Montcalm, their commander, killed here by general Wolfe, who fell in the moment of victory, 13 Sept. 1759; see Quebec.

Abrahamites, a sect holding the errors of Paulus, was suppressed by Cyriacus, the patriarch of Antioch, early in the ninth century. A deistical sect of this name was banished from Bohemia by Joseph II. in 1783.

Abrantes (Portugal). By a treaty between France and Portugal, signed here 29 Sept. 1801, the war was closed, and the French army withdrew; a money compensation having been agreed to, and territories in Guiana ceded to France.

Absalom's Rebellion and death (1024-23 B.C.) is described 2 Sam. xv.-xix.

Absconding Debtors' Act, passed 9 Aug. 1870. Absentee Tax (48. in the pound), levied in Ireland in 1715 on the incomes and pensions of absentees (long complained of), ceased in 1753. A tax of 2s. in the pound was proposed in vain by Mr. Flood in 1773 and by Mr. Molyneux in 1783.

Absolution. Till the third century, the consent of the congregation was necessary to absolution; but soon after the power was reserved to the bishop; and in the twelfth century the form "I absolve thee" had become general; see Holy Cross.

Abstinence. It is said that St. Anthony lived to the age of 105 on twelve ounces of bread and water daily, and James the hermit to the age of 104; that St. Epiphanius lived to 115; Simeon the Stylite to 112; and Kentigern, commonly called St. Mungo, to 185 years of age.-Spottiswood.

Cicely de Ridgway, said to have fasted forty days rather than plead when charged with the murder of her husband, John; discharged as miraculously saved, 1347. Ann Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire, was said to have lived twenty months without food; but her imposture was detected by Dr. A. Henderson, Nov. 1808. A man named Cavanagh at Newry, in Ireland, was reported to have lived two years without meat or drink, Aug. 140. His imposture was discovered in England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841.

Sarah Jacobs, the Welsh fasting girl, aged thirteen, said by her father to have lived for more than a year without food. after being closely watched for a week, died from exhaustion 17 Dec. 1869. Her parents were sentenced at Carmar

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Abstinents, an ascetic sect in Gaul and Spain: about 288.

Abydos, see Hellespont. The tablet of Abydos, dedicated to the memory of his ancestors by Pharaoh Rameses II. (1311-1245 B.C.), was bought for the British Museum, 1837.

Abyssinia, the country of the Habese, N. E. Africa. Its ancient history is very uncertain. The kingdom of the Auxumita (its chief town Auxume) flourished in the first and second centuries after Christ. The religion of the Abyssinians is a corrupt form of the Christianity introduced about 329 by Frumentius. About 960, Judith, a Jewish princess, murdered a great part of the royal family, and reigned forty years. The young king escaped; and the royal house was restored in 1268 in the person of his descendant Icon Amlac. In the middle ages it was said to be ruled by Prester John, or Prete Janni. The Portuguese missions, commenced in the fifteenth century, after much struggling against opposition, were expelled about 1633. The encroachments of the Gallas and intestine disorders soon after broke up the empire into petty governments. From the visits of James Bruce, 1768-73; Henry Salt, 1809-10; Edward Rüppell, 1834-7; major Harris, 1841; Mansfield Parkyns, 1844-7, much information respecting Abyssinia has been gained. Several expeditions into Abyssinia have been organized by the French government. The brothers Antoine and Arnauld Abbadie visited the country 1837-45. Abyssinia was divided into four provinces. In 1847 Ras Ali was ruler of Amhara; Ras Ubie of Tigré and Samien; and Sahela Selassie of Shoa. Population between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000.

Treaty of commerce with the king of Shoa concluded by captain Harris...

11 Feb. 1855

.....16 Nov. 1841 Mr. Plowden (made British consul at Massowah, 1848) concludes treaty with Ras Ali, ruler of Amhara, 2 Nov. 1849 Ras Ali deposed by his son-in-law Theodore, who is crowned, and takes the title of negus, or king of kings, Protestant missionaries received, replacing Roman CathMr. Plowden (who had joined the party of Theodore) killed by rebels, Feb.; his friend Bell killed soon after, when avenging him; Theodore overcomes the rebels and massacres about 150 prisoners as a sacrifice to their

olics

manes...

1860 Captain C. D. Cameron appointed to succeed consul Plowden..... .Nov. 1861

He arrived at Massowah 9 Feb., goes to Abyssinia, May; received by Theodore, 7 Oct.; is sent away with a letter for the queen, desiring alliance against the Turks; which arrived... .12 Feb. 1863

It is decided that this letter is not to be answered; Cameron, ordered by earl Russell to remain at Massowah, returns to Abyssinia.... June, Rev. H. Stern, missionary, beaten and imprisoned for alleged intrusion upon Theodore...

Oct.

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Cameron, and all British subjects and missionaries, im-
prisoned for pretended insults, 3 Jan.; report of im-
prisonment reached London, 7 May; prisoners sent to
Magdala, and chained like criminals.
.. Nov. 1864

Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, a Chaldee Christian, first assistant
British political resident at Aden, sent on mission to
Abyssinia; arrives at Massowah, 24 July; lieut. Pri-
Mr. Rassam having negotiated without effect for a year,
deaux and Dr. Blanc appointed to accompany him....

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Mr. Gifford Palgrave is appointed by earl Russell to go to Abyssinia, July; but is stopped on the intelligence that Theodore has invited Rassam to come to him. .12 Aug. 1865 Mr. Rassam, lieut. Prideaux, and Dr. Blanc arrive at Matemma from Massowah, 21 Nov. 1865; and are well received by Theodore...

.28 Jan. 1866 Prisoners released, 12 March; all seized and imprisoned about 13 April,

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Mr. Flad sent to England by Theodore to obtain British workmen, April; arrives, July; introduced to queen Victoria, and receives from her an autograph letter, dated. 4 Oct. Mr. Flad returned with workmen to Massowah, 29 Oct. ; Theodore received the queen's letter....about 19 Dec. Lord Stanley's ultimatum to Theodore, demanding release of the captives in three months (not received), sent 16 April, 1867

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. May, 1867

Mr. Flad received by the king; and made to join his family in prison... Preparations for war; sir Robert Napier appointed commander of an expedition; pioneer force sails from Bombay.... .....14 Sept.

A formal letter from the British government sent to
Theodore (never arrived)...
.9 Sept.
Advanced brigade (3500) sail from Bombay,7, 8 Oct.; land
at Zoulla

Napier's proclamation issued in Abyssinia.
Captives at Magdala reported well..

21 Oct.

.26 Oct. ..11 Nov.

Report that the Gallas have joined the revolt against Theodore...

.25 Nov. The British parliament meets; the queen's speech announces the war, 19 Nov. ; 2,000,000l. voted, 26, 27 Nov. Third ultimatum sent by sir R. Napier; intercepted by a rebel chief and given to Mr. Rassam, who suppressed it as likely to endanger the lives of the captives.. Arrival of sir R. Napier at Annesley bay. The captives relieved of their chains.. ......29 March, Sir R. Napier arrives below Magdala. ...2 April,

.4 Jan.

Theodore massacres about 300 native prisoners. .9 April,
Battle of Arogee; Theodore's troops attack the British
first brigade; defeated with much slaughter (Good
Friday)..
..10 April,
Theodore requests Mr. Rassam to mediate; lieut. Prideaux
sent to sir R. Napier returns with a letter; Theodore
receives it indignantly, and sends an insulting reply,
11 April,
Theodore sends a letter of apology offering a present of
cattle; Mr. Rassam, understanding this present to have
been accepted, tells the king's agents; the European
artisans and families sent to the British camp. 12 April,
Part of the Abyssinian troops mutiny; Magdala bom-
barded and stormed; Theodore kills himself..13 April,
["I fail to discover a single point of view from which it
is possible to regard his removal with regret.”—Sir R.
Napier...

Magdala burned to the ground..
Death of Theodore's queen..

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Academical Study, see Education, 1872.

Academies. Academia was a shady grove without the walls of Athens (bequeathed by Academus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato first taught philosophy, and his followers took the title of Academics, 378 B.C. Stanley.-Rome had no academies.*-Ptolemy Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alexandria, about 314 B.C. Abderahman I., caliph of Spain, founded academies about A.D. 773. Theodosius the Younger, Charlemagne, and Alfred are also named as founders of academies. Italy is celebrated for its academies; and Jarckius mentions 550, of which 25 were in Milan. In 1874 Girolamo Ponti, of Milan, bequeathed about 35,000/. to the academies of science of London, Paris, and Vienna.

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Dijon, 1740.

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Dublin, Arts, 1742; Painting, Sculpture, etc., 1823.

Immediate return of the troops;-all had embarked 2 June,

Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754.

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Troops arrive at Plymouth, 21 June; sir R. Napier at Dover... 2 July, [Cattle said to have been employed in the expedition: 45 elephants, 7417 camels, 12,920 mules and ponies, 7033 bullocks, 827 donkeys. Natives largely employed in the transport service.]

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Theodore's son Alamayoú, aged 7, arrives at Plymouth, 14 July; presented to queen Victoria. .16 July, Pension of 350l. to col. Cameron [he died 30 May, 1870]; 50001. given to Mr. Rassam; 2000l. to Dr. Blanc; 20007. to lieut. Prideaux; announced.. .23 Dec. Prince Alamayoú sailed to India for education (returned to England end of 1871).. 1.26 Jan. 1869 Expenses of the war: 5,000,000l. voted 18 Dec. 1868; 3,300,000l. more voted...

.4 March,

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[Total: 8,977,5007.

Feb. 1880]

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War between Gobazye, king of Amhara, and Kassa, king of Tigré; Kassa victor.. Gobazye beaten and taken prisoner.. Kassa proposes to be crowned emperor and negus of all Abyssinia, 21 Nov.; punishes the Catholic missionaries for partisanship; and forms alliance with Egypt..July Kassa crowned at Axum as Johanni II. Said to be ruling tyrannically.. War with Egypt; the Khedive's troops enter Abyssinia; the natives retire, but surprise and defeat the Egyp tians at Kherad Iska (a massacre) and at Gonda Gouddi (a desperate fight). 16 Oct. 1875 Abyssinians defeated in three days' conflict..17-19 Feb. 1876 Col. Gordon said to be negotiating peace for Egypt..June, 1877 King Johanni totally defeats Menelek, king of Shoa, middle of June,

Menelek submits, permitted to rule;-reported great battle; Menelek said to be killed.. ...... 17 Sept. Col. Gordon concludes peace; Abyssinia to have a port Oct. 1879

Prince Alamayoú dies at Leeds, 14 Nov., buried at Wind

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King Johanni, said to have been killed in battle, succeeded by his son Michael (?).. ....... April, 1881 Abyssinian Era is reckoned from the creation, which the Abyssinians place in the 5493d year B.C., on 29 Aug. old style; their dates consequently exceed ours by 5492 years, 125 days. To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, subtract 5492 years, 125 days.

Acacians. 1. Followers of Acacius, bishop of Casarea, in the fourth century, who held peculiar doctrines respecting the nature of Christ. 2. Partisans of Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, promoter of the Henoticon (which see), 482-4.

Florence, Belles lettres, 1272; Della Crusca (now united with

(by card. de' Medici); Antiquities, 1807.

Geneva, Medical, 1715.

Genoa, Painting, etc., 1751; Sciences, 1783.

Germany, Nature Curiosi, now Leopoldine, 1662.

Göttingen, 1734-7.

Haerlem, the Sciences, 1760.

Irish Academy, Royal, Dublin, 1782.

Lisbon, History, 1720; Sciences, 1779.

London, see Societies. Royal Academy of Fine Arts, 1768; of Music, 1734-44; and 1822.

Lyons, Sciences, 1710; Physic and Mathematics added, 1758. Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713; History, 1730; Painting and the Arts, 1753.

Manheim, Sciences, 1755; Sculpture, 1775.
Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1701.
Marseilles, Belles-lettres, 1726.

Massachusetts, Arts and Sciences, 1780.
Milan, Architecture, 1380; Sciences, 1719.
Montauban, 1744.

Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759; Sciences, 1779.
Naples, Rossana, 1540; Mathematics, 1560; Sciences, 1695;
Herculaneum, 1755.

National Academy (American) of Sciences, 1863.
National Academy of Design, New York, 1828.
New York, Literature and Philosophy, 1814.
Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682.

Padua, for Poetry, 1613; Sciences, 1792.
Palermo, Medical, 1645.

Paris, Sorbonne, 1253; Painting, 1391; Music, 1543 and 1672; French (by Richelieu), 1635; Fine Arts, 1648; Inscriptions et Belles lettres (by Colbert), 1663; Sciences (by Colbert), 1666; Architecture, 1671; Surgery, 1731; Military, 1751; Natural Philosophy, 1796.

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St. Petersburg, Sciences, 1725; Military, 1732; the School of
Stockholm, of Science, 1741; Belles-lettres, 1753; Agriculture,
1781; Royal Swedish, 1786.
Toulon, Military, 1682.

Toulouse, Floral Games (Jeux Floraux), 1323; Science, In-
scriptions, and Belles-lettres, 1782.
Turin, Sciences, about 1759; Fine Arts, 1778.
Turkey, Military School, 1775.

United States American Institute of Instruction, 1830; Amer

* Cicero termed his villa "Academia," and here composed his "Academic Questions."'

ican Association for the Advancement of Education, 1849; American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1845;

Association of American Geologists, 1840. Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. Venice, Medical, etc., 1701.

Verona, Music, 1543; Sciences, 1780.

first used by the French in the reign of Louis XIII. (about 1610).

Accession, THE, i. e. that of the House of Hanover to the throne of Great Britain, in the person of

Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705; Surgery, 1783; Oriental, George I., elector of Hanover, son of Sophia, daughter

1810.

Warsaw, Languages and History, 1753.
Washington, United States, America, 1863.

Academy. An educational institution, in grade between a school and a college. Among the most important in the United States are: the Free Academy of New York, established 1851; Phillips Academy of Andover, Mass., 1780; Phillips Academy, Exeter, 1781; Groton (now Lawrence) Academy, 1845; Boston Latin School, 1635; Brooklyn Collegiate and Polytechnic Institute, 1854.

Academy, MILITARY. A special school for the instruction of youth in military or naval science and art. Such are, for instance:

Addiscombe, East India Company.
Alabama, Military.

Annapolis, Md., Naval..

Brest, Military.

.1818 ..1831 ..1845 1862

Kentucky, Military.

1846

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University of Chicago, Military.

..1866

Louisiana, Military.

.1859

Lehigh University, Pa., Military.

.1866

North Carolina, Military.

.1789

Norwich, Vt., Military.

1820

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of Elizabeth, daughter of James I. He succeeded, 1 Aug. 1714, by virtue of the act of settlement passed in the reign of William III., 12 June, 1702, which limited the succession to his mother (as a Protestant) in the event of queen Anne dying without issue.

Accessories TO CRIMES, The law respecting them consolidated and amended in 1861.

Accidents, see under Coal, Fires, Railways, etc. For compensation for accidents, see Campbell's Act and Passengers. In 1865 it was computed that, in one year, about 250 persons are killed, and 1200 injured, in the streets of London; 231 were killed in 1875; 237 killed, 3185 injured, 1 Jan. 1878-31 Jan. 1879; 136 killed in

1879.

Accident Relief Society, London, established 1836.
Society for Preventing Street Accidents and Dangerous Driv.
ing, formed in 1879; met at the Mansion House, London, 30
Jan. 1880; wound up, 1 July, 1881.

ACCIDENTAL DEATHS IN ENGLAND AND WALES.
1856, 9716 1862,

1857, 8930 1863,

9005,1868, 11,033) 1874, 11,783 9952 1869, 10,725 1875, 12,254 1858, 8947 1864, 10,997 1870, 10,906 1876, 11,681 1859, 9241 1865, 11,397 1871, 11,316 1877, 11.194 1860, 9225 1866, 11,262 1872, 11,435 1878, 12,108 1861, 9213 1867, 11,172 1873, 11,284 1879, 10,787

Acclimatization oF ANIMALS. This has been ..1812 prosecuted with great vigor since the establishment of 1682 the Zoological Society of London in 1829, and of the 1775 Société d'Acclimatation in Paris. Numbers of European .1802 animals have been naturalized in Australia; the camel .1741 has been conveyed to Brazil (1859); alpacas are bred at Paris; and ostriches in Italy (1859). On 6 Oct. 1860, the Bois de Boulogne, near Paris, was opened as a zooAn English acclimatization society was founded 10 June, logical garden, containing only acclimatized animals. 1860, by hon. Grantley Berkeley, Mr. J. Crockford, Mr. F. Buckland, etc., and the prince of Wales became president in April, 1865. It was not successful.

Acadia, see Nova Scotia. Acanthus, the foliage forming the volutes of the Corinthian capital, ascribed to Callimachus, about 540 B.C. Acapulco, Mexico. A Spanish galleon, from Acapulco, laden with gold and precious wares (estimated at above 1,000,000l. sterling), taken by commodore Anson, who had previously acquired booty in his voyage amount-matizing garden was established at Melbourne, Ausing to 600,000l., June, 1743. He arrived at Spithead in tralia, in Feb. 1861, and efforts made to naturalize Engthe Centurion, having circumnavigated the globe, 15 lish birds, fishes, etc. June, 1744.

Acarnania, N. Greece. The people became prominent in the Peloponnesian war, having invited the help of the Athenians against the Ambracians, 432 B.C. The Acarnanians were subdued by the Lacedæmonians in 390; they took part with Macedon against the Romans in 200, by whom they were defeated in 197, and subjugated in 145.

Accadians, a name now given to the primitive inhabitants of Babylon. The rev. A. H. Sayce (1877) considers them to have been the earliest civilizers of Eastern Asia, and the source of the philosophy and arts of the Assyrians and Phoenicians, and hence of Greece. Their libraries are said to have existed seventeen centuries B.C.

Accents were first introduced in the Greek language by Aristophanes of Byzantium, a grammarian and critic who taught at Alexandria about 264 B.C. Accents were

"This admirable institution has supplied the nation with 2200 accomplished officers, of which any army might well be proud; has filled every arm of the service with talent, efficiency, and integrity; has materially aided in successfully conducting three great wars; has constructed and armed our for

tifications, improved our harbors, lakes, and rivers, defined our boundaries, surveyed and lighted our coasts, and explored the length and breadth of our land; has given to our militia and volunteers large numbers of valuable officers, and to our colleges able presidents and professors; has furnished distinguished civil engineers, who have bound our territory together with a network of railways and canals; . . . and through the contributions and text-books of its graduates has greatly elevated the sient fic standard of most of the educational institutions throughout our country, and even extended its influence abroad."-G. W. Cullom.

An accli

Accoltellatori (gladiators), secret assassins, at Ravenna and other places in Italy, 1874.

Accordion, a small free-reed wind-instrument with keys, invented at Vienna by Damian about 1829, and soon after introduced into England.

Accountant-General IN CHANCERY, etc., an office instituted in 1726, and abolished by an act passed 6 Aug. 1872. In 1841, the office of accountant-general of the court of exchequer was abolished, and the duties transferred to the accountant in chancery.

Accountants' INSTITUTE, established at a meeting, 30 July, 1870; the Accountants' Society in 1872. Five societies were incorporated as "The Chartered Institute of Accountants of England and Wales" in 1880.

Accusers. By occult writers, such as Agrippa, accusers are the eighth order of devils, whose chief is called Asteroth, or Spy. In Rev. xii. 10, the devil is called "the accuser of the brethren." False accusers were to be hanged, by 24 Henry VI. 1446; and burned in the face with an F, by 37 Henry VIII. 1545.—Stow.

Aceldama, a field said to have been the one bought with the thirty pieces of silver given to Judas Iscariot for betraying Christ, is still shown to travellers. Matt. xxvii. 8; Acts i. 19.-This name was given to an estate purchased by judge Jeffreys after the "bloody assizes"

in 1685.

Acephali (Greek a, no; kɛpaλý, head), a term applied to certain sects who resisted their bishops and met privately, about 450; and since to levellers.

Acetylene, a luminous hydrocarbon gas resembling | have been discovered through the advance of organic coal gas, discovered by Berthelot, and made known in chemistry.-Watts. 1862.

Achaia (N. Peloponnesus), Greece, said to have been settled by Achæus, the son of Xuthus, about 1330 B.C. (?). The kingdom was united with Sicyon or subject to the Etolians until about 284 B.C. The Achæi, descendants of Achæus, originally inhabited the neighborhood of Argos; but when the Heraclide drove them thence they retired among the Ionians, expelled the natives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz. Pellene, Ægira, Ægium, Bura, Tritæa, Leontium, Rhypes, Cerynea, Olenos, Helice, Patræ, Dyme, and Pharæ, forming the ACHEAN

LEAGUE.

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B. C.
366

275, 274
245

The league joined by Corinth (captured 243), Megara,

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Acheen, capital of a kingdom N.W. of Sumatra, was visited by the Portuguese about 1509. Factories were set up here by the Dutch, 1596; by the English, 1602; by the French, 1621. For the war with the Dutch, see Sumatra.

Achonry, SLIGO (N. Ireland), a bishopric founded by St. Finian, who erected the church of Achad, or Achonry, about 520, and conferred it on his disciple Nathy (Dathy, or David), the first bishop. The see, held with Killala, since 1612, was united with Tuam in 1834.

Achromatic Telescopes, in which color is got rid of, were invented by John Dollond, and described in Phil. Trans. of the Royal Society, London, 1753-8.

Acolytes, an inferior order of clergy in the Latin church, unknown to the Greek church for four hundred years after Christ.

Acoustics (from Greek ȧrouw, I hear), the science of sound, so named by Sauveur in the 17th century. The formation of sound in the air by the vibrations of the atmosphere, strings, etc., was explained by Pythagoras about 500 B.C., and by Aristotle, 330 B.C.; see Telephone, Microphone, Megaphone.

The speaking-trumpet said to have been used by Alexander

the Great, 335 B.C.

Galileo's discoveries, about A. D. 1600.

His theorem of the harmonic curve demonstrated by Dr. Brook Taylor in 1714; further perfected by D'Alembert, Euler, Bernouilli, and La Grange, at various periods of the eighteenth century.

Hooke calculated the vibration of sounds by the striking of the teeth of brass wheels, 1681.

Sauveur determined the number of vibrations belonging to a given note, about 1700.

Velocity of sound said to be 1473 feet in a second by Gassendi; 1172 feet by Cassini, Römer, and others; 968 feet by Newton; 1090 feet, at the temperature of 32° Fahrenheit. by Tyndall. The velocity increases with the rise of tempera

ture.

Chladni (who raised acoustics to an independent science) pub-
lished his important discoveries on the figures produced in
layers of sand by harmonic chords, etc., in 1787, and since.
Caguiard-Latour, invented the Sirène (which see), 1819.
Savart determined the range of the perception of the human
ear to be from 7 to 24,060 vibrations a second, 1830.
Biot, Savart, Wheatstone, Lissajous, Helmholtz, Tyndall. and
others, in the present century, have greatly increased our
knowledge of acoustics.

Over-tones, harmonics, well invest gated by Helmholtz; un-
der-tones by Auerbach, 1878.

Tyndall's experiments off the South Foreland on fog signals and gun-cotton demonstrated that the transmission of sound is checked by the non-homogeneity of the air, independently of fog and rain, July, 1873.

The results of Tyndall's experiments showed that the parabolic-muzzle gun with gun-cotton, and that of sir Richard Collinson's gun-cotton rocket, are very effective fog-signals. Fine-grain gunpowder with howitzers is the best soundproducer; pebble powder the worst, 1874-7.

Sound produced by electricity, light, and from radiant heat, see Telephone and Photophone, 1881.

Acre, a land measure, formerly of uncertain quantity, and differing in various parts of the country, was reduced to a standard by Edward I., about 1305. In 1824 the standard acre was ordered by statute to contain 4840 square yards.

Acre, Acca, anciently Ptolemais, in Syria, was taken I. in 1104; by Saladin in 1187; and again by Richard I. by the Saracens in 638; by the crusaders under Baldwin and other crusaders, 12 July, 1191, after a siege of 2 years, with a loss of 6 archbishops, 12 bishops, 40 earls, 500 barons, and 300,000 soldiers. It was then named St. Jean d'Acre. It was retaken by the Saracens in 1291, when 60,000 Christians perished, and the nuns, who had mangled their faces to preserve their chastity, were put to death. Acre was gallantly defended by Djezzar Pacha against Bonaparte, till relieved by sir Sidney Smith, who resisted twelve attempts by the French, between 16 March and 20 May, 1799, when Bonaparte retreated. Acre, as a Turkish pachalic, was seized 27 May, 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted. On Acids (now defined as salts of hydrogen) are gener-3 Nov. 1840, it was stormed by the allied fleet under sir ally soluble in water, redden organic blues, decompose Robert Stopford, and taken after a bombardment of a carbonates, and destroy the properties of alkalies, form-few hours, the Egyptians losing upwards of 2000 in killed ing alkaline salts. The number of acids was increased and wounded, and 3000 prisoners, while the British had by the Arabs; Geber (8th century) knew nitric acid and but 12 killed and 42 wounded; see Syria and Turkey. sulphuric acid. Theories of the constitution of acids Acropolis, the ancient citadel of Athens, built on a were put forth by Becher (1669), Lemery (1675), and Near it stood the temple of Minerva, the PartheStahl (1723). After the discovery of oxygen by Priestwhich see. Other cities had similar fortresses. ley, 1 Aug. 1774, Lavoisier (1778) concluded that oxygen was a constituent of all acids; but about 1810 Davy, Acrostic, a poem in which the first or last letters Gay-Lussac, and others proved the existence of acids of each line, read downwards, form a word, is said to have free from oxygen. In 1816 Dulong proposed the binary been invented by Porphyrius Optalianus in the fourth or hydrogen theory of acids, and in 1837 Liebig applied century. Double acrostics became very popular in 1867. the theories of Davy and Dulong to explain the constitution of several organic acids. Oxygen acids were termed anhydrides by Gerhardt (died 1856). Many acids

rock.

non,

Acs, or Acz (Hungary). The Hungarians under Görgey were defeated here by the Austrians and Russians on 2 and 10 July, 1849.

Act OF SETTLEMENT, etc., see Accession, Succession, | New Index to acts 1235-1874, published 1876. Supremacy, and Uniformity Acts.

Acta Diurna, see Newspapers.

Acta Sanctorum ("acts of the saints"), a work begun by the Jesuits. The first volume appeared in 1643: the publication was interrupted in 1794, when 54 volumes, bringing the work down to 15 Oct., had been published. The work was resumed by the Jesuits in 1837, and 6 more volumes had been published in 1867. The writers have been named Bollandists, from John Bolland, who published the first two volumes.

Actinometer, an instrument to measure the heating power of the solar rays, invented by sir John F. Herschel, and described by him in 1825; see Sun.

Actium, a promontory of Acarnania, W. Greece, near which was fought, 2 Sept. 31 B.C., the battle between the fleet of Octavius Cæsar and that of Marc An

tony and Cleopatra, which decided the fate of Antony, 300 of his galleys going over to Caesar. This victory

made Octavius master of the world, and the Roman empire is commonly dated 1 Jan. 30 B.C. (the Actian Era). The conqueror built Nicopolis (the city of victory), and instituted the Actian games.

Publication of the revised edition of the statutes (1325-1868), 15 volumes published, 1870-8.

Report of select committee on acts of parliament, published July, 1875. The greatest number of acts passed in any one year since 1800 was 570, in 1846 (the railway year); 402 were local and personal, 51 private, and 117 public acts. In 1841. only 13 were passed (the lowest number), of which two were private. In three instances only, the annual number was under a hundred. The average number of the first ten years of the present century was 132 public acts. In the ten years ending 1850, the average number of acts, of public interest, was 112. The number of public general acts passed in 1851 was 106; in 1852, 88; in 1853, 137; in 1854, 125; in 1855, 134; in 1856, 120; in 1857, 86; in 1858, 109; in 1859, 101; in 1860, 154; in 1861, 134; in 1862, 114; in 1863, 125; in 1864, 121; in 1865, 127; in 1866, 122; in 1867, 146; in 1868, 130; in 1869, 117; in 1870, 112; in 1871, 117; in 1872, 98; in 1873, 91; in 1874, 96; in 1875, 96; in 1876, 81; in 1877, 69; in 1878, 79; in 1879, 78; in 1880, 19 and 48 (new parliament).

Actuary, ACTUARIUS, the Roman accountant. The Institute of Actuaries, founded in 1848, publishes its proceedings in the Assurance Magazine.

Adam and Eve, ERA OF, in the English Bible, 4004 B.C.; see Creation.

Adamites, a sect said to have existed about 130, Acton-Burnel, or Shrewsbury. At the parliament and to have been quite naked in their religious assemheld here by Edward I., Oct. 1283, the "statute of mer-blies, asserting that if Adam had not sinned there would chants" against debtors was enacted.

Acton Murder, see Trials, 1880.

Actresses appear to have been unknown to the ancients, men or eunuchs performing the female parts. Charles II. is said to have first encouraged the public appearance of women on the stage in England in 1662; but Anne, queen of James I., had previously performed in a theatre at court.-Theat. Biog. Mrs. Colman was the first English public actress; she performed the part of Ianthe in Davenant's "Siege of Rhodes," in 1656.Victor.

Acts, in dramatic poetry, first employed by the Romans. Fire acts are mentioned by Horace ("Art of Poetry") as the rule (about 8 B.C.).

Acts of the Apostles, supposed to have been written by Luke in continuation of his Gospel. It terminates A.D. 63.

Acts of Parliament, or STATUTES, see ParliaThe following are among the most celebrated early statutes:

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The statutes passed during each session were formerly printed annually in 4to and 8vo, now in 8vo only. Abstracts are given in the Cabinet Lawyer. Between 1823 and 1829, 1126 acts were wholly repealed, and 443 repealed in part, chiefly arising out of the consolidation of the laws by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel. Of these acts, 1344 related to the kingdom at large, and 225 to Ireland solely; and in 1856 many obsolete statutes (enacted be. tween 1285 and 1777) were repealed.

By the Statute Law Revision Act of 1861, 770 acts were whoi ly repealed, and a great many partially. By similar acts since passed, a great number of enactments have been repealed, commencing with the Provisions of Merton, 20 Henry III. (1235-6), and end ng 1844.

"Acts of parliament abbreviation bill," introduced by lord Brougham 12 Feb., passed 10 June, 1850.

1410 acts (passed between 1689 and 1770) partially or wholly repealed. 1867.

"Chronological Table and Index to the Statutes to the end of 1869,"published 1870.

have been no marriages. Their chief was named Prodicus; they defied the elements, rejected prayer, and said it was not necessary to confess Christ.-Eusebius. A sect with this name arose at Antwerp in the 12th cen

It

tury, under Tandemus or Tanchelin, whose followers, became extinct soon after the death of its chief; but an3000 soldiers and others, committed many crimes. other of the same kind, nimed Turlupins, appeared shortrevived this sect in Bohemia, about 1415; it was suply after in Savoy and Dauphiny. Picard, a Fleming, pressed by Ziska, 1420.

Adda, a river N. Italy, passed by Suwarrow after defeating the French, 27 April, 1799.

Addington Administration. Mr. Pitt, having engaged to procure Roman Catholic emancipation to promote the union with Ireland, and being unable to do so as a minister, resigned 3 Feb. 1801. A new ministry was formed by Mr. Addington, March-July, 1801; after various changes it terminated about 10 May, 1804.

Henry Addington,* first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer.

Lord Eldon, lord chancellor.

Duke of Portland, lord president.

Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal.

Lord Pelham, home secretary.

Mr. R. B. Jenkinson (lord Hawkesbury, 1803; and earl of Liv. erpool, 1808), foreign secretary.

Lord Hobart, colonial secretary.

Earl St. Vincent, first lord of admiralty.
Earl of Chatham, ordnance.

Charles Yorke, secretary-at-war.
Viscount Lewisham, lord Auckland, etc.

Addiscombe College, near Croydon, Surrey, purchased by the East India company in 1809, for education of candidates for scientific branches of the Indian army, was closed in 1861.

Addison's Disease, a dangerous affection of the renal capsules, described by its discoverer, Dr. Thomas Addison, in 1855.

Additional Curates, the society for their employment in populous places was founded in 1837 (High Church).

Addled Parliament, see Parliament.
Addressers, see Abhorrers.

Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, was

*Born 1757; became viscount Sidmouth, Jan. 1805; held various offices afterwards, and died in 1844. His circular to the lords lieutenants, dated 27 March, 1817, directing them to adopt severe measures against the authors of blasphemous and seditious pamphlets, was greatly censured, and not carried into effect.

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