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..July, 1865 .25 May, 1841

Sydney, in Australia, was lit with gas... The sale of gas is regulated by acts passed in.. The gas-pipes in and around London extend upwards of 2000 miles, and are daily increasing. It was said in 1860 that of the gas supply of London a leakage of 9 per cent. took place through the faulty joints of the pipes.

Processes to obtain illuminating gas from water have been patented by Cruickshanks (1839), White (1849), and others. Water-gas made by Ruck's process mixed with ordinary gas tried and reported successful at Chichester. Gas-meters patented by John Malam (1820), sir W. Congreve (1824), Samuel Clegg (1830), Nathan Defries (1838), and others.

1860

..Aug. 1873

Explosion of a large gasometer at the London Gas-light Company's works at Nine-elms; 10 persons killed, and many injured (first accident of the kind)......31 Oct. 1865 .27 Dec. 1866

Moscow first lit with gas..

An economical gas produced from bitumen at Woolwich arsenal..

.Jan. 1868 1849

Central Gas Company, London, established... Gas successfully tried as fuel for the generation of steam by Jackson's patent..... April, 1868 The Central Gas Company robbed of about 70,000l. by Benjamin Higgs, a clerk; discovered.. .. April, 1869 Gas light tried at Howth light-house, near Dublin..July, Gas-works Clauses act passed... 13 July, 1871 By the London gas act, passed 13 July, 1868, ordinary gas charged 3s. 9d. the 1000 cubic feet after 1 Jan. 1870. The charges raised on account of dearness of coal and labor..

..Jan. 1874

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Gas supply of London: receipts, 1872, 2,133,000l.; 1873, 2,544,0007.

1879

...1879-80

Capital of metropolitan companies, 12,681,818. ("Chartered Company," 9,096,771.); total annual income, 3,926,7697. (average profit, 91. 3s. 5d. per cent.).... Street gas lit by electricity, by Mr. St. G. Lane Fox's method; a trial, partially successful, Pall Mall, etc., 13 April, 1878 Depression in gas companies through prospects of electric light, Oct. 1878; recovery.. Explosions of gas-mains near Bedford street, Tottenham Court road, London; 2 killed; others injured; much property destroyed.... ..5 July, 1880 Gastein (Salzburg, Austria). The long discussion between Austria and Prussia respecting the disposal of the duchies conquered from Denmark was closed by a provisional convention signed here by their ministers (Blum for Austria, and Bismarck for Prussia) 14 Aug. 1865. This convention was severely censured by the other powers and abrogated in 1866.

Austria was to have the temporary government of Holstein, and Prussia that of Sleswig; the establishment of a German fleet was proposed, with Kiel as a Federal harbor, held by Prussia; Lauenburg was absolutely ceded to Prussia, and the king was to pay Austria as a compensation 2,500,000

Danish dollars.

Gate-meetings, see Races.
Gates, see London Gates.

Gateshead, a borough in Durham, on the Tyne, opposite Newcastle. At Gateshead-fell, William I. defeated Edgar Atheling and his Scotch auxiliaries in Gateshead was made a parliamentary borough 1068. by the Reform act in 1832.

Between twelve and one o'clock, 5, 6 Oct. 1854, a fire broke out in a worsted manufactory here, which set fire to a bond warehouse containing a great quantity of nitre, sulphur, etc., causing a terrific explosion, felt at nearly twenty miles' distance, and totally destroying many buildings, and burying many persons in the ruins. At the moment of the explosion, large masses of blazing materials flew over the Tyne and set fire to many warehouses in Newcastle. About fifty lives were lost, and very many persons were seriously wounded. The damage was estimated at about a million pounds.

Gatling Gun or Battery. An American invention exhibited at Paris in 1867. It is intended to discharge at once a number of projectiles smaller than the shells of field guns, and it has as many locks as barrels. It was tried at Shoeburyness and rejected as inferior to a field gun firing shrapnel. The gun has been greatly improved, and is now believed to be one of the best

arms of its class in use. A powder to be used in the Gatling, invented by M. Pertuiset, was tried in London, Aug. 1870.

Gaugamela, see Arbela.

Gauges (in railways). Much discussion (termed "the battle of the gauges") began among engineers about 1833. Mr. I. M. Brunel approved of the broad gauge, adopted on the Great Western Railway; and Mr. R. Stephenson, Joseph Locke, and others, chose the narrow, now almost universally adopted even by the Great Western. A 2-foot gauge was recommended in Feb. 1870, having been successful on the Festiniog railway, Wales, with Fairlie's engine. About 200 miles of the S.W. lines of the Great Western were altered from the broad to the narrow gauge in a few days, June, 1874. In the United States the broad (6 feet) gauge has been entirely abandoned. The Southern railroads, originally 5 feet, and the Ohio railroads originally 4 feet 10 inches, have been conformed to the standard gauge of 4 feet 8 inches. This gauge is now in use throughout the country, except upon unimportant lines, where for the sake of economy very narrow gauges (3 feet, or 2 feet 6 inches) have been adopted.

Gauging, measuring the contents of any vessel of capacity, with respect to wine and other liquids, was established by a law, 27 Edw. III. 1352.

Gaul AND Gauls. Gallia was the ancient name of France and Belgium. The Gauls (termed by the Greeks Galatæ, by the Romans Galli or Celta) came originally from Asia, and, invading Eastern Europe, were driven westward, and settled in Spain (in Galicia), North Italy (Gallia Cisalpina), France and Belgium (Gallia Transalpina), and the British isles (the lands of the Cymry or Gaels).

The Phocæans found Massilia, now Marseilles.......B.C.
The Galli Senones under Brennus defeat the Romans at
the river Allia, and sack Rome; are defeated and ex-
pelled by Camillus.
Again defeated..

600

..13 July,

390

367

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quence, applied, in 1782, to earl Temple, lord lieutenant of Ireland, for permission to settle in that country: the Irish parliament voted 50,000l. to defray the expenses of their journey, and to purchase them lands near Waterford. Many of the fugitives came to Ireland in July, 1783, but they soon after abandoned it; many Genevese settled in England.....

Gavel-kind (derived from the Saxon gif eal cyn, | Insurrection, Feb. 1781; about 1000 Genevese, in conse"give all suitably;" or from gafolcynd, land yielding rent), the custom in Kent of dividing paternal estates in land, the wives to have half, the rest equally among male children, without any distinction, 550. By the Irish law of gavel-kind, even bastards inherited.-Davies. Not only the lands of the father were equally divided among all his sons, but the lands of the brother also among all his brethren, if he had no issue of his own.-Law Dict.

Gaza, a city of the Philistines, of which Samson carried off the gates about 1120 B.C. (Judg. xvi.). It was taken by Alexander after a long siege, 332; and near to it Ptolemy defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes, 312 It was taken by Saladin A.D. 1170; by Bonaparte, March, 1799; and by the Egyptians under Ibrahim Pacha in 1831.

B.C.

Gazettes, see Newspapers.

Gelheim, near Worms, central Germany. Here the emperor Adolphus of Nassau was defeated and slain by his rival, Albert I. of Austria, 2 July, 1298.

Gemara, or Ghemara, see Talmud. Gems. The Greeks excelled in cutting precious stones, and many ancient specimens remain. The art was revived in Italy in the fifteenth century. In Feb. 1860, Herz's collection of gems was sold for 10,000. Rev. C. King's "Antique Gems appeared in 1860, and his "Natural History of Precious Stones and Gems" in 1865. Dr. A. Billing's "Science of Gems," 1868. Artificial gems have been produced by chemists (Ebelmen, Deville, Wöhler, and others), 1858-65.

The duke of Marlborough's collection, valued at 60,000l.,

sold by auction to Mr. Bromilow for 36,750...28 June, 1875 Genealogy (Greek yevɛaλoyia-from yeveά, birth, descent, and Xoyos, discourse). The earliest pedigrees are contained in the 5th, 10th, and 11th chapters of Genesis. The first book of Chronicles contains many genealogies. The pedigree of Christ is given in Matt. i. and Luke iii. Many books on the subject have been published in all European countries; one at Magdeburg, "Theatrum Genealogicum," by Henninges, in 1598. Anderson, "Royal Genealogies,” London, 1732. Sims's "Manual for the Genealogist," etc., 1586, will be found a useful guide. The works of Collins (1756 et seq.), Edmondson (1764-84), and Nicolas (1825 and 1857), on the British peerage, are highly esteemed. The Genealogical Society, London, established in 1853.

General Assembly, see Church of Scotland. General Councils, Warrants, see Councils,

Warrants.

Generals. Matthew de Montmorency was the first general of the French armies, 1203.-Hénault. Balzac states that cardinal Richelieu coined the word Generalissimo, upon his taking the supreme command of the French armies in Italy, in 1629. Ulysses S. Grant was the first general of the army of the United States of America, so styled in 1866; see Commanders-inChief.

Generation (in chronology), the interval of time between the birth of a father and the birth of his child: 33 years are allowed for the average length of a generation. Harvey's thesis "Omne vivum ex ovo" (Every living being springs from an egg), has been disproved by the researches of Von Siebold and others. See Spon

taneous.

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1784

A revolution; executions and imprisonments......July, 1794 Geneva incorporated with France.... ..26 April, 1798 Admitted into the Swiss Confederation.... .30 Dec. 1813 The constitution made more democratic.

Revolution, through an endeavor of the Catholic cantons to introduce Jesuits as teachers; a provisional government set up....

[The scheme was withdrawn.]

1846

..7 Oct. 1848

About 50 persons from Geneva land at Thonon and Evian, to set up the Swiss flag; but are brought back by Swiss troops.

..30 March, 1860

Election riots, with loss of life, through the indiscretion of M. Fazy..

.18 Dec. 1871 15 June, 1872

.22 Aug. 1864 49th annual meeting of the Helvetic Society of National Sciences held.. ..21-23 Aug. 1865 Violent peace congress-Garibaldi present......12 Sept. 1867 The Alabama arbitration commission met; received the cases and adjourned to 15 June, 1872.. Formal meeting of the commission (see Alabama), Monsignor Mermillod nominated bishop of Geneva (in the diocese of the bishop of Lausanne) and vicar apostolic; his arrest proposed, 2 Feb.; ordered to quit, if he will not submit to the civil government by 15 Feb.; he is expelled. Geneva visited by the shah. The ex-duke of Brunswick dies here and bequeaths his The International" assemble here; small meeting, vast property (above 764,000.) to the city.....18 Aug.

66

.17 Feb. July, 1873

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2 Sept. Violent hail storm; great destruction of glass and crops, 7, 8 July, 1875 The duke of Brunswick's remains placed in the grand Rousseau centenary celebrated. .2 July, 1878 .7 Sept. 1879

mausoleum....

Geneva Convention, for the succor of the wounded in time of active warfare. Having been a witness of the horrors of the battle-field of Solferino, 24 June, 1859, M. Henri Dunant, a Swiss, published his experiences, which induced the Société Génévoise d'Utilité Publique in Feb. 1863 to discuss the question whether relief societies might not be formed in time of peace to help the wounded in time of war by means of qualified volunteers. At an international conference held 26 Oct. 1863, fourteen governments, including Great Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, Italy, and Russia, were represented by delegates. were accepted as an international code by a congress The propositions then drawn up which met at Geneva, 8 Aug. 1864, and on 22 Aug. a convention was signed by twelve of the delegates, and it was eventually adopted by all civilized powers except the United States. International conferences were held veloping in a practical manner the objects of the Geat Paris in 1867 and at Berlin in 1869 for further deneva conference. The International Society (termed "the Red Cross Society "), established in consequence of these proceedings, was very energetic in relieving the wounded and sick during the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, its flag being recognized as neutral. See Aid to Sick and Wounded. Above 13,000 volunteers said to be employed in attending the sick and wounded, Sept.Dec. 1870. At a meeting in London, 6 Aug. 1872, M. Dunant proposed a plan for the uniform treatment of prisoners of war.

Genoa, the ancient Genua (N. Italy). Its inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the Romans, 115 B.C. It partook of the revolutions of the Roman empire.

Genoa becomes a free commercial state.. ....about 1000

Frequent wars with Pisa...

Genoa...

.1070-1284

1241 about 1720

Frederick II. captures 22 galleys, and vainly besieges The families of Doria and Spinola obtain ascendency, The Genoese destroy the naval power of Pisa at Melora (which see).... ....6 Aug. 1284 Frequent wars with Venice... 1218-32; 1293-9 Rafaele Doria and Galeotto Spinola appointed captains.. 1335 Simon Boccanegra made the first doge, 1339; set aside by the nobles, 1344; reappointed... Great discord; many doges appointed... Genoa successively under protection of France, 1396; of

1356 1394

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Genoa made the Ligurian republic..

restores
. May, 1684
.Sept. 1745
Sept. 1746
.10 June, 1747
1750
May, 1797

.14 June, 1800 .4 June, 1805 ..18 April, 1814 . Dec.

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The city, blockaded by a British fleet and Austrian army,
until literally starved, was evacuated by capitulation,
5 June; but it was surrendered to the French soon
after their victory at Marengo...
Genoa annexed to the French empire..
Surrenders to the English and Sicilians.....
United to the kingdom of Sardinia....
The city seized by insurgents, who, after a murderous
struggle, drove out the garrison and proclaimed the
Ligurian republic, 3 April; but surrendered to gen.
La Marmora..
.11 April, 1849
Gens-d'armes were anciently the king's horse-
guards only, but afterwards the king's gardes-du-corps;
the musqueteers and light horse were reckoned among
them. There was also a company of gentlemen (whose
number was about 250) bearing this name. Scots guards
were about the persons of the kings of France from the
time of St. Louis, who reigned in 1226. They were or-
ganized as a royal corps by Charles VII. about 1441;
the younger sons of Scottish nobles being usually the
captains. The name gens-d'armes was afterwards given
to the police; but, becoming obnoxious, was changed to
"municipal guard" in 1830.

Gentleman (from gentilis, of a gens, a race or clan). The Gauls, observing that during the empire of the Romans the scutarii and gentiles had the best appointments of all the soldiers, applied to them the terms écuyers and gentilshommes. This distinction of gentlemen was much in use in England, and was given to the well-descended about 1430.-Sidney. Gentlemen by blood were those who could show four descents from a gentleman who had been created by the king by letters-patent.

Gentlemen-at-arms (formerly styled the Band of Gentlemen Pensioners) is the oldest corps in England, with the exception of the Yeomen of the Guard. The band was instituted by Henry VIII. in 1509, and was originally composed entirely of gentlemen of noble blood, whom he named his pensioners or spears. William IV. commanded that it should be called his majesty's honorable corps of gentlemen-at-arms, 7 March, 1834.-Curling.

Gentlewomen's Self-help Institution, London, established by the earl of Shaftesbury, duchess of Sutherland, and others, May, 1870.

Geodesy (from the Greek y, the earth, and daiw, I divide), the art of measuring the surface and determining the figure of the earth, etc. Col. A. Clarke's "Geodesy" published 1880; see Latitude.

Geography. The first geographical records are in the Pentateuch and in the book of Joshua. Homer describes the shield of Achilles as representing the earth surrounded by the sea, and also the countries of Greece, islands of the Archipelago, and site of Troy.-Iliad. The priests taught that the temple of Apollo at Delphos was the centre of the world. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical maps, about 568 B.C. Hipparchus attempted to reduce geography to a mathematical basis, about 135 B.C. Strabo, the great Greek geographer, lived 71-14 B.C. Ptolemy flourished about 139 A.D. The science was brought to Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, about 1240.-Lenglet. Maps and charts were introduced into England by Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent, 1489. Geography is now divided into mathematical, physical, and political, and its study has been greatly promoted during the present century by expeditions at the expense of various governments and societies. The Royal Geographical Society

of London was established in 1830; that of Paris in 1821. The American Geographical Society, New York, was organized 1852; see Africa, Northwest Passage,

etc.

An international congress of geographers held at Ant-
werp in 1871; at Paris, 1 Aug 1875; at Brussels,
12 Sept. 1876

Dr. August Heinrich Petermann, founder and editor of
the celebrated Mittheilungen über wichtige neue Er-
forschungen auf dem Gesammtgebiete der Geographie
in 1855, and an eminent cartographer, died....26 Sept. 1878
A congress on commercial geography met at Brussels,
Oct. 1879
Mr. E. H. Bunbury's "History of Ancient Geography
among the Greeks and Romans," published 1879. He re-
fers especially to Hecatæus, Herodotus, Hanno, Pytheas
(discoverer of Britain). Eratosthenes (born B.C. 276;
made a map), and to Ptolemy, about A. D. 139.
E. A. Freeman's "Historical Geography of Europe'
published....

65 geographical societies in the world...

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1881

.......Jan.

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Geok Tepe, a strong Turkoman fortress; see Russia, 1879-81.

Geology, the science of the earth, is said to have been cultivated in China before the Christian era, and occupied the attention of Aristotle, Theophrastus, Pliny, Avicenna, and the Arabian writers.

In 1574 Mercati wrote concerning the fossils in the pope's museum: Cesalpino Majoli and others (1597), Steno (1669), Scilla (1670), Quirini (1676), Plot and Lister (1678), Leibnitz (1680), recorded observations, and put forth theories on the various changes in the crust of the earth.

Hooke (1668), in his work on Earthquakes, said that fossils,

"as monuments of nature, were more certain tokens of antiquity than coins or medals; and though difficult, it would Burnet's "Theory of the Earth" appeared in 1690, Whiston's not be impossible to raise a chronology out of them."

in 1696.

Buffon's geological views (1749) were censured by the Sor-
bonne in 1751, and recanted in consequence. The principle
he renounced was that the present condition of the earth is
due to secondary causes, and that these same causes will
produce further changes. His more eminent fellow-laborers
and successors were Gesner (1758), Michell (1760), Raspe
(1762-73), Pallas and Saussure (1793-1800).

Werner (1775) ascribed all rocks to an aqueous origin, and
even denied the existence of volcanoes in primitive geo-
logical times, and had many followers-Kirwan, De Luc, etc.
Hutton (1788), supported by Playfair (1801), warmly op
posed Werner's views, and asserted that the principal
changes in the earth's crust are due to the energy of fire.
The rival parties were hence termed Neptunists and Vul-
canists.
William Smith, the father of British geology (who had walked
over a large part of England) drew up a Tabular View of
British Strata" in 1799, and published it and his "Geological
Map of England and Wales," 1812-15; died 28 Aug. 1839.
The rev. Adam Sedgwick, another father, died 27 Jan. 1873,
aged 87. Sir Charles Lyell died 22 Feb. 1875.

In 1803 the Royal Institution possessed the best geological
collection in London, collected by H. Davy, C. Hatchett, and
others; the proposal of sir John St. Aubyn, sir Abraham
Hume, and the right hon. C. F. Greville to aid the govern-
ment in establishing a school of mines there in 1804-7 was
In 1807 the Geological Society of London was established. By
declined 13 Nov. 1807.

collecting a great mass of new facts it greatly tended to
check the disposition to theorize, and led to the introduc-
tion of views midway between those of Werner and Hutton.
The Geological Society of Dublin, 1832; of Edinburgh, 1834;
of France, 1830; of Germany, 1848.
In 1835 Mr. (afterwards sir Henry) De la Beche suggested the
establishment of the present Museum of Geology, which be-
gan at Craig's court, and which was removed to its present
position in Jermyn street. To him are also due the valua-
ble geological maps formed on the ordnance survey. The
building was erected by Mr. Pennethorne, and formally
opened by the prince consort, 14 May, 1851. Attached to
the Museum are the Mining Records office, a lecture theatre,
laboratories, etc. Sir H. De la Beche, the first director,
died 13 April, 1855; succeeded by sir Roderick Murchison,
who died 22 Oct. 1871; succeeded by prof. A. C. Ramsay,
March, 1872.

A similar institution was established at Calcutta by the East
International Geological congress met at Paris, 1878; to meet
India Company in 1840.
at Bologna, 29 Sept. 1881.

The English standard works on geology at the present time
are those of Lyell, Murchison, Phillips, De la Beche, Man-
Cuvier and Brongniart's work on Geology of Paris, 1808 et
tell, and Ansted.

seq.

The strata composing the earth's crust may be divided into
L. Agassiz, "Poissons Fossiles," 1833-45.

two great classes:

I. Those generally attributed to the agency of water;

II. To the action of fire: which may be subdivided as follows:
Aqueous formations, stratified, rarely crystalline:
Sedimentary, or fossiliferous, rocks.
Metamorphic, or unfossiliferous.

Igneous formations, unstratified, crystalline.
Volcanic, as basalt, etc.

Plutonic, as granite, etc.

Fossiliferous, or Sedimentary, rocks are divided into three

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

F.

G.

H.

I.

K.

L.

M.

N.

0.

great series:

The Paleozoic (most ancient forms of life), or Primary. The Mesozoic (middle-li e period), or Secondary.

31. Lower: Gneiss and Quartzites, with Interstratified Limestones, in one of which, 1000 feet thick, occurs a foraminifer, Eozoon Canadense, the oldest known fossil.

Geometry, so termed from its original application to measuring the earth, is ascribed to the Egyptians; the annual inundations of the Nile having given rise to it by carrying away the landmarks and boundaries. Thales introduced geometry into Greece, about 600 B. C.

The Neozoic, or Cainozoic (more recent forms of life), or Pythagoras cultivated the science about 580.
Tertiary.

TABLE OF STRATA (chiefly from Lyell).

NEOZOIC:

I. POST-TERTIARY:

Post-Pliocene:

1. Recent Marine strata; with human remains; Danish peat; kitchen middens; bronze and stone implements; Swiss lake-dwellings; temple of Serapis at Pozzuoli.

2. Post Pliocene: Brixham cave, with flint knives,
and bones of living and extinct quadrupeds; an-
cient valley gravels; glacial drift; ancient Nile
mud; postglacial North American deposits; re-
mains of Mastodon; Australian breccias.

II. TERTIARY, Or Cainozoic, SERIES:
Pliocene:

3. Newer Pliocene (or Pleistocene) Mammalian beds,
Norwich Crag. [Marine Shells.]
4. Older Pliocene: Red and Coralline Crag (Suffolk,
Antwerp).
5, 6. Miocene, Upper and Lower: Bordeaux; Vir-
ginia Sands and Touraine beds; Pikermé deposits
near Athens; volcanic tuff and limestone of the
Azores, etc.; brown coal of Germany, etc. [Mas-
todon, Gigantic Elk, Salamander, etc.]
7, 8, 9. Eocene, Upper, Middle, and Lower: Fresh-
water and Marine beds; Barton Clays; Brackles
ham Sands; Paris Gypsum; London Plastic, and
Thanet Clays. [Palms, Birds, etc.]

III. SECONDARY, OR MESOZOIC, SERIES: 10. Cretaceous, Upper; British Chalk; Maestricht beds. Chalk with and without Flints, Chalk Marl, Upper Green Sand, Gault, Lower Green Sand. [Mesosaurus; Fish, Mollusks, etc.] 11. Lower (or Neocomian or Wealden): Kentish Rag; Weald Clay; Hastings Sand. [Iguanodon, Hylaosaurus, etc.]

12. Oolite, Upper: Purbeck beds, Portland Stone and Sand, Kimmeridge Clay; Lithographic Stone of Solenhofen with Archeopteryx. [Fish.] 13. Middle: Calcareous Grit, Coral Rag, Oxford Clay, Kelloway Rock. [Belemnites and Ammonites.] 14. Lower: Cornbrash, Forest Marble, Bradford Clay, Great Oolite, Stonesfield Slate, Fuller's Earth, Inferior Oolite. [Ichthyosaurus, Plesio saurus, Pterodactyl]

15. Lias: Lias Clay and Marl Stone. [Ammonites, Amphibia, Labyrintho Equisetum, don.]

16. Trias, Upper: White Lias, Red Clay, with Salt in Cheshire, Coal fields in Virginia, U. S. [Fish,

Dromatherium.]

17. Middle, or Muschelkalk (wanting in England). [Encrinus; Placodus gigas.] 18. Lower: New Red Sandstone of Lancashire and Cheshire. [Labyrinthodon, Footprints of Birds and Reptiles.]

IV. PRIMARY, OR PALEOZOIC, SERIES: 19. Permian: Magnesian Limestone, Marl Slates, Red Sandstone and Shale, Dolomite; Kupferschiefer. [Firs, Fishes, Amphibia.]

20, 21. Carboniferous, Upper and Lower: Coal Measures, Millstone Grit, Mountain Limestone. [Ferns, Calamites, Coal]

22, 23, 24. Devonian, Upper, Middle, and Lower: Tilestones, Cornstones, and Marls, Quartzose, Conglomerates. [Shells, Fish, Trilobites.] 25, 26, 27. Silurian, Upper, Middle, and Lower: Ludlow Shales, Aymestry Limestone, Wenlock Limestone, Wenlock Shale, Caradoc Sandstone, Llan[Sponges,

deilo Flags; Niagara Limestone. Corals, Trilobites, Shells.] 28, 29. Cambrian, Upper and Lower: Bala Limestone, Festiniog Slates, Bangor Slates and Grits, Wick low Rock, Hasleets Grits, Huronian Series of Canada. [Zoophytes, Lingula, Ferns, Sigillaria, Stigmaria, Calamites, and Cryptogamia.]

30. Laurentian, Upper Gneiss of the Hebrides (?): Labradorite Series, N. of the St. Lawrence; Adirondack Mountains, New York.

The doctrine of curves originally attracted the attention of geometricians from the conic sections, which were introduced by Plato, about 390 B. C.

Euclid's Elements" compiled about 300 B. C.
Archimedes, a discoverer in geometry, 287-212 B. C.
The conchoid curve invented by Nicomedes, 220 B.C.
Ptolemy, the astronomer, second century, A. D.
Geometry taught in Europe in the thirteenth century.
Books on geometry and astronomy were destroyed in England
as infected with magic, 7 Edw. VI., 1552.-Stow.
Descartes published his "Analytical Geometry," 1627.
Sir Isaac Newton ("Arithmetica Universalis," etc.), 1642–1727.
Simson's edition of Euclid, first appeared, 1756.
La Place's "Mécanique Celeste," 1799-1805.

George. A gold coin current at 6s. 8d. in the reign of Henry VIII.-Leake.

George, Fort, on the Canada side, near the mouth of the Niagara river, was captured by the Americans under gen. Dearborn, nearly 4000 strong, on the 27th of May, 1813. The British garrison numbered about 3000. The Americans lost 33 killed and 88 wounded; the British lost 108 killed, 163 wounded, and 622 made prisoners. On the 8th of July following, an American foraging party, near Fort George, were attacked by a greatly superior force of British and Indians. Only a corporal and nine men escaped to the fort; the remainder (29) were killed or wounded. On the 17th of the same month the outworks of Fort George were attacked by 200 British and Indians. They were gallantly defended by a detachment from the garrison under col. The Americans (afterwards lieut.-gen.) Winfield Scott. lost four killed and four wounded. Again, on the 24th of August, these outworks were attacked by a British party. They were repulsed by a detachment under capt. Davenport. The loss on both sides was inconsiderable.

George, St., the tutelary saint of England, and adopted as patron of the order of the Garter by Edward III. His day is 23 April; see Garter and Knighthood. St. George was a tribune in the reign of Diocletian, and, being a man of great courage, was a favorite; but, complaining to the emperor of his severities towards the Christians, and arguing in their defence, he was put in prison, and beheaded 23 April, 290.-On that day, in 1192, Richard I. defeated Saladin.

Georges' Conspiracy, in France. Gen. Moreau, gen. Pichegru, Georges Cadoudal, who was commonly known by the name of Georges, and others, were arrested at Paris, charged with a conspiracy against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIII., Feb. 1804. Pichegru was found strangled in prison, 6 April. Twelve of the conspirators, including Georges, were executed 25 June, and others imprisoned. Moreau was exiled, and went to America. In 1813 he was killed before Dresden (which see).

Georgia, the ancient Iberia, now a province of S. Russia, near the Caucasus, submitted to Alexander about 331 B.C., but threw off the yoke of his successors. It was subjugated to Rome by Pompey, 65 B.C., but retained its own sovereigns. Christianity was introduced into it in the third century. In the eighth century, after a severe struggle, Georgia was subdued by the Arab caliphs; by the Turkish sultan Alp-Arslan, 1068; and by the Tartar hordes, 1235. From the fourteenth to the eighteenth century, Georgia was successively held by the Persian and Turkish monarchs. In 1740 Nadir Shah established part of Georgia as a principality, of which the last ruler, Heraclius, surrendered his territories to the czar in 1799; and in 1802 Georgia was declared to be a Russian province.-GEORGIA, a state of the United States, was settled by gen, Oglethorpe in 1782.

Separating from the United States congress, it surrendered to the British, Dec. 1778; and its possession was of vast importance to the royalists in the war. Count d'Estaing joined the United States general Lincoln, and made a desperate attack on Georgia, which failed, and the French fleet returned home; the colony was given up to the Union by the British in 1783. It seceded from the Union, by ordinance, 18 Jan. 1861, and was conquered by Sherman in 1864-5, and readmitted as a state in Jan. 1868; see United States.-GEORGIA, in the Pacific, was visited by capt. Cook in 1775.

Georgium Sidus, the first name of the planet Uranus (which see), discovered 13 March, 1781.

Gerberoi (Normandy, N. France). Here William the Conqueror was wounded in battle by his son Robert, who had joined the French king, Philip I., 1078.

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German Union oF NATURAL PHILOSOPHERS, the forerunner of the British Association, was founded by Oken, at Leipsic, in 1822; partly to promote political unity in Germany. It has met annually, except in troubled years, such as 1848, 1866, and 1870; 50th time, 17 Sept. 1877; 53d meeting at Dantzic, 18 Sept. 1880.

Germanic Confederation, superseding the Confederation of the Rhine (which see), was constituted 8 June, 1815; held its first diet at Frankfort, 16 Nov. 1816, and its last, 24 Aug. 1866; see next article. It comprised:

1. Austria; 2. Prussia; 3. Bavaria; 4. Saxony; 5. Han-
over; 6. Würtemberg.

7. Baden; 8, 9. Hesse (electorate and grand-duchy).
Denmark (for Holstein and Lauenburg).
11. Netherlands (for Luxemburg).
12. Saxe- Weimar, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen, and
Saxe-Altenburg.
13. Brunswick and Nassau.

Germ Theory of Disease supposes "that many diseases are due to the presence and propagation in the animal system of minute organisms having no part or share in its normal economy."-Maclagan, 1876. The doctrine of contagium animatum was held in the middle ages and put forth in the sixteenth century, but contagious 10. organisms were not discovered till the nineteenth by professors Lister, Tyndall, and others, 1875-8. At the British Association, 14 Sept. 1870, professor Huxley expressed his concurrence with the "germ theory;" see Dust and Disease. Germain, St., near Paris. The palace here was begun by Louis the Fat, 1124, and enlarged and embellished by his successors, especially by Francis I., Henry IV., and Louis XIV. Here James II. of England resided in state after his abdication in 1689, and here he died, 16 Sept. 1701; see Treaties.

German Confederation, North, established in room of the Germanic Confederation (which see): population, 1867, estimated 29,906,092. The confederation ceased on the re-establishment of the German empire, 1 Jan. 1871.

The king of Prussia invites the states of North Germany
to form a new confederation...
..16 July, 1866
Treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, between Prus-
sia and the following states: Saxe-Weimar, Oldenburg,
Brunswick, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg Gotha, An-
halt, two Schwarzburgs, Waldeck, the younger Reuss,
two Lippes, Lubeck, Bremen, and Hamburg; signed,

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18 Aug.
.21 Aug.
....3 Sept.
.26 Sept. 66
....8 Oct.
21 Oct. 66

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deputies from
.24 Feb. 1867

German Hospital, Dalston, founded 1845, for Germans, and English in cases of accident. German Society of Benevolence and Concord established 1817. German Language has two great branches: Hochdeutsch and Plattdeutsch, High and Low German. The former became the literary language, principally through its use by Luther in his translation of the Bible and in other works, 1522-34. The latter is that spoken by the lower classes. There are many dialects: the satirical epic in Low-German, "Reineke Fuchs," appeared in 1498; see Reynard.

PRINCIPAL GERMAN AUTHORS.

14. Mecklenburg Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
15 Oldenburg, three Anhalts, and two Schwarzburgs.
16. Two Hohenzollerns, Liechtenstein, two Reuss,
Schaumburg-Lippe, Lippe, and Waldeck.
17. Free cities: Lubeck, Frankfort, Bremen, and Hamburg.
The diet declares for a constituent assembly, 30 March,
which met..

.18 May, 1848

The diet remits its functions to the archduke John, vicar
of the empire (see Germany)...
The diet re-established, meets..

.12 July, ..30 May, 1851

The emperor of Austria proposes a reform of the confederation, 17 Aug.; accepted by the diet, 1 Sept.; rejected by Prussia..

.22 Sept. 1863 The diet celebrates the fiftieth anniversary of its establishment..

..8 June, 1865 Vote of the majority of the diet supports Austria in the dispute respecting Schleswig and Holstein; Prussia announces her withdrawal from the confederation, and its dissolution; the diet declares itself indissoluble, continues its functions, and protests.........14 June, 1866 The diet removes to Augsburg during the war...14 July, The confederation renounced by Austria at Nikolsburg, 26 July, The diet holds its last sitting.... ..24 Aug.

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Germanites, a name given to a sect, of which members appeared in the British Mediterranean fleet in 1867. They called themselves "non-fighting men," and hold no communion with other religious bodies.

Germans, St., was made the seat of the bishopric of Cornwall for a short time, about 905.

Germany (Germania, Alemannia), anciently, as now, The Germans long divided into independent states. withstood the attempts of the Romans to subdue them; and although that people conquered some parts of the country, they were expelled before the close of the third century. In the fifth century the Huns and other tribes prevailed over the greater portion of Germany. In the the Saxons and other tribes, and was crowned emperor latter part of the eighth century, Charlemagne subdued at Rome, 25 Dec. 800. At the extinction of his family, the empire became elective, 911, and was generally obtained by a member of the house of Hapsburg from 1546 1437 till 1804. Germany was divided into circles, 15011578 12. The Confederation of the Rhine was formed 12 July, 1769 1806; the Germanic Confederation, 8 June, 1815; and 1781 the North German Confederation, 18 Aug. 1866; the 1748 1794 treaty ratified, 8 Sept. 1866; see Franco-Prussian War, 1724 1803 1870-1.

Born

Ullas (Gothic Bible), about A. D. 360.
Martin Luther (German Bible, etc., 1522-34).... 1483
Hans Sachs...

Godf. Leibnitz..

G. F. Gellert

G. E. Lessing

G. A. Bürger

1494 1646 1715 1729

Died

1716

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upon treaties concluded between the North German Confederation (which see) and (1) the grand-duchies of Baden and Hesse, 15 Nov. 1870; (2) the kingdom of Bavaria, 23 Nov. 1870; (3) the kingdom of Würtemberg, 25 Nov. 1870; ratified, 29 Jan. 1871. William I., king of Prussia, was proclaimed emperor at Versailles, 18 Jan. 1871.

1813 1791 1813 1763 1825 1751 1826 1772 1829 1776 1831 Population in 1871 (including Alsace Lorraine, conquered 1749 1832 1870). 41,069, 846. The parliament is elected by manhood suffrage and ballot.

1767 1835

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