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Kentucky, by col. Boone.

1700
1717

... 1732
1754

Canada conquered by the English, 1759-60; ceded to
Great Britain.....
American war-declaration of independence by the Unit-
ed States, 1776; recognized by Great Britain...
Louisiana ceded to Spain, 1762; transferred to France,
1800; sold to the United States.
Florida ceded to Great Britain, 1763; taken by Spain,
1781; to whom it is ceded, 1783; ceded to the United
States..

Revolution in Mexico-declaration of independence...
Revolutions in Spanish America; independence estab-
lished by Chili, 1810; Paraguay, 1811; Buenos Ayres,
and other provinces, 1816; Peru..

(See United States, Mexico, and other states, throughout the volume.)

America, BRITISH, see British America.

1763

1699 Holland, France, and Spain, were signed in London by lord Hawkesbury and M. Otto, on the part of England and France, 1 Oct. 1801; and the definitive treaty was subscribed at Amiens, on 27 March, 1802, by the marquis of Cornwallis for England, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, and Schimmelpenninck for Holland. War was declared again in 1803. After a conflict, in which the French were defeated, 27 Nov. 1870, the German general, Von Goeben, entered Amiens, 28 Nov.

1783

1803

1820

1821

1826

Ammonia, the volatile alkali, mainly produced by the decomposition of organic substances. Its name is ascribed to its having en procured from heated camels' dung near the temple of Jupiter Ammon in Libya. The discovery of its being a compound of nitrogen and bydrogen is ascribed to Joseph Priestley in 1774. By the recent labors of chemists both the oxide of the hypoAmerica, CENTRAL, includes the republics of Gua-thetical metal ammonium, and ammonium amalgam, temala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa have been formed; and specimens of each were shown Rica (which see). They declared their independence 21 at the Royal Institution in 1856 by Dr. A. W. Hofmann, Sept. 1821, and separated from the Mexican confedera- who has done very much for the chemical history of tion 21 July, 1823. The states made a treaty of union ammonia. between themselves, 21 March, 1847. There has been among them since much anarchy and bloodshed, aggravated greatly by the irruption of American filibusters under Kenny and Walker, 1854-5. In Jan. 1863, a war began between Guatemala (afterwards joined by Nicaragua) and San Salvador (afterwards supported by Honduras). The latter were defeated at Santa Rosa, 16 June, and San Salvador was taken 26 Oct.; the president of San Salvador, Barrios, fled; and Carrera, the dictator of Guatemala, became predominant over the confederacy. See Darien and Panama..

America, RUSSIAN, sold to the United States for about 400,000l., March, 1867. See Alaska.

America, SOUTH, see Brazil, Argentine, Peru, Paraguay, Uruguay, etc.

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America," see Yacht.

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American steamer; see Wrecks, 1880.

American Association FOR THE ADVANCE

MENT OF SCIENCE, resembling the British Association, held its first meeting at Philadelphia, 20 Sept. 1848; 28th, Saratoga, 27 Aug. 1879; 29th at Boston, 23-28 Aug. 1880; 30th at Cincinnati, 17 Aug. 1881.

American Institute of Instruction, incorporated in Massachusetts, 1831. Meets annually in various cities for educational discussion. Francis Wayland was its first president.

American Organ, a free-reed keyed wind instrument, resembling the harmonium, with important differences; the principle was discovered, about 1835, by a workman employed by Alexandre of Paris. The invention was taken to America, where instruments were made by Mason & Hamlin, of Boston, about 1860.

Americanisms: a dictionary of these expressions compiled by John R. Bartlett, and first published in 1848; reprinted, 1859; revised ed. 1878.

Ammonites, descended from Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot (1897 B.C.), invaded Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but were defeated by Jephthah, 1143 B.C. They again invaded Canaan, intending to put out the right eye of all they subdued; but Saul overthrew them, 1095 B.C. They were afterwards many times vanquished; and Antiochus the Great took Rabbah their capital, and destroyed the walls, 198 B.C.-Josephus.

Amnesty (a general pardon after political disturbances, etc.) was granted by Thrasybulus, the Athenian patriot, after expelling the thirty tyrants, 403 B.C. Acts of amnesty were passed after the civil war in 1651, and after the two rebellions in England in 1715 and 1745.After his victorious campaign in Italy, Napoleon III. of France granted an amnesty to all political offenders, 17 Aug. 1859.-President Lincoln issued a proclamation of conditional amnesty to persons engaged in the rebellion, 8 Dec. 1863. President Johnson issued amnesty proclamations on 29 May, 1865; 7 Sept. 1867; 4 July, 1868; and 25 Dec. 1868. This last was a proclamation of complete amnesty to all persons who had participated in the rebellion; a contest arose as to its validity. A rather sweeping amnesty bill was passed by Congress, 10 April, 1871, and another on 22 May, 1872, which restored with certain exceptions, covering the cases of only about the political privileges of all participants in the rebellion, granted by the emperor of Austria at his coronation as 600 persons. An amnesty for political offences was king of Hungary, 8 June, 1867.-An amnesty association on behalf of the Fenians was active in Britain, Oct. 1873. -2245 French communists pardoned by decree, published 17 Jan. 1879; many others during the year. A general amnesty for political offences passed by the chamber (333-140) 21 June, 1880.

Amoaful, near Coomassie, W. Africa. After a severe conflict, 31 Jan. 1874, the Ashantees were defeated at this place by sir Garnet Wolseley. Captain Buckle was killed, and about 20 officers and 200 men were wounded. The 42d Highland regiment was very ener

Americanists, a name assumed by some persons devoted to the study of the archæology, ethnology, etc., of North and South America, who held their first international congress at Nancy in July, 1875; one at Lux-getic. embourg, Sept. 1877; at Brussels, Sept. 1879; at Madrid, autumn 1881.

Amethyst, the ninth stone upon the breastplate of the Jewish high-priest, 1491 B.C. It is of a rich violet color. One worth 200 rix-dollars, having been rendered colorless, equalled a diamond in lustre, valued at 18,000 gold crowns.-De Boot. Amethysts discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1775.

Amherst College, at Amherst, Mass. Founded

1821.

Amiens, a city in Picardy (N. France); the cathedral was built in 1220. It was taken by the Spanish, 11 March, and retaken by the French, 25 Sept. 1597. The preliminary articles of the peace between Great Britain, |

Amoeba, see Protoplasm.
Amoy, see China, 1853-5.

Amphictyonic Council, asserted traditionally to have been established at Thermopyla by Amphictyon, for the management of all affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council, composed of twelve of the wisest and most virtuous men of various cities of Greece, began 1498 [1113, Clinton] B.C., and existed 31 B.C. mediate office was to attend to the temples and oracles of Delphi. Its calling on the Greek states to punish the Phocians for plundering Delphi caused the Sacred wars, 595-586, and 356-346 B.C.

Its im

"Amphion," a British frigate of 38 guns, blown up

while riding at anchor in Plymouth Sound, and the whole of her crew then on board, consisting of more than two hundred and fifty persons, officers and men, perished, 22 Sept. 1796.

Amphipolis, Macedon (N. Greece). A city founded here by the Athenians, 437 B.C.; was seized by Brasidas the Spartan, 424; both he and the Athenian general, Cleon, were killed in a fruitless attempt at the capture of the city by the Athenians, 422.

Amphitheatres, round or oval buildings said to have been first constructed by Curio, 76 B.C., and by Julius Cæsar 46 B.C. In the Roman amphitheatres the people witnessed the combats of gladiators with wild beasts, etc. They were generally built of wood, but Sta

tilius Taurus made one of stone, under Augustus Cæsar; see Coliseum. The amphitheatre of Vespasian (capable of holding 87,000 persons) was built between A.D. 70 and 80; and is said to have been a fortress in 1312. The amphitheatre at Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismes.

"Amphitrite," THE SHIP; see Wrecks, 30 Aug.

1833.

Amputation, in surgery, was greatly aided by the invention of the tourniquet by Morel, a French surgeon, in 1674, and of the flap-method by Lowdham of Exeter, in 1679.

Amsterdam (Holland). The castle of Amstel was commenced in 1100; the building of the city in 1203. Its commerce was greatly increased by the decay of that of Antwerp after 1609. The exchange was built in 1634, and the noble stadthouse in 1648; the latter cost three millions of guilders, then a large sum. It was built upon 13,659 piles. Amsterdam surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince invaded Holland, in favor of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French were admitted without resistance, 18 Jan. 1795. The Dutch government was restored in Dec. 1813. A crystal palace for an industrial exhibition was opened by prince Frederick of the Netherlands, 16 Aug. 1864. The canal, from Amsterdam to the North Sea, was inaugurated by the king 1 Nov. 1876. A new university was opened Dec. 1877.

Amulets, or CHARMS, employed from the earliest times. Amulets were made of the wood of the true cross about 328.

Amyl, a chemical alcohol radical (first isolated by professor Edward Frankland in 1849).

Amylene, a colorless, very mobile liquid, first procured by M. Balard of Paris, in 1844, by distilling fusel oil (potato-spirit) with chloride of zinc. The vapor was employed instead of chloroform first, by Dr. Snow, in 1856. It has since been tried in many hospitals here and in France. The odor is more unpleasant than chloroform, and more vapor must be used.

Anæsthetics, see Opium, Chloroform, Ether, Amylene, Kerosolene, Nitrous Acid. Intense cold has been also employed in deadening pain.

Anadolia (Asia Minor) comprises the ancient Lycia, Caria, Lydia, Mysia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Phrygia (which see).

On

"Est

ters of a word or sentence (as army from Mary), are said
Anagrams, formed by the transposition of the let-
to have been made by ancient Jews, Greeks, etc.
the question put by Pilate to our Saviour," Quid est ve-
ritas?" (What is truth?) we have the anagram,
vir qui adest" (The man who is here); from "Horatio
Nelson" is "Honor est a Nilo" (Honor is from the Nile).
Analysts, Society of Public, founded by professor
Redwood, Dr. Dupré, and others, 7 Aug. 1874; see Adul-
teration.

Anam, see Annam.

Anastatic Printing, see Printing, 1841.

Anathema, the sentence of excommunication (1 Cor. xvi. 22), used by the early churches, 365; see Excommunication. Pope Pius IX. propounded a series of anathemas, Feb. 1870.

Anatomy (Greek, cutting up). The human body was studied by Aristotle about 350 B.C., and became a branch of medical education, under Hippocrates, about 420 B.C. Erasistratus and Herophilus first dissected the human form, having been previously confined to animals; it is said that they practised upon the bodies of living criminals about 300 and 293 B.C. Galen, who died A.D. 193, was a great anatomist. In England the schools were long supplied with bodies unlawfully exhumed from graves; and, until 1832, the bodies of executed murderers were ordered for dissection.* Pope Boniface VIII. forbade the dissection of dead bodies, 1297.-The first anatomical plates, designed by Titian, were employed by Vesalius, about 1538. Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michael Angelo studied anatomy. The great discoveries of Harvey were made in 1616. William and John Hunter were great anatomists: William died 1783, and John, 1793. Quain's and Wilson's large anatomical plates were published 1842, and Bourgery's great work by Jacob, 1830-55. Comparative anatomy has been treated systematically in the present century by Cuvier, Owen. Müller, Huxley, and others.-The anatomy of plants has been studied since 1680; see Botany.

Anchorets, see Monachism.
Anchorites, see Monachism.

Anchors were invented by the Tuscans.-Pliny.
The second tooth, or fluke, was added by Anacharsis the
Scythian (592 B.C.).-Strabo. Anchors said to have
been forged in England A.D. 578. The Admiralty an-
chor was introduced about 1841. Improved anchors
were made by Pering and Rodgers about 1828;
ter, 1838; by Costell, 1848; by Trotman, 1853;
several other persons. Trotman's is attached to the
queen's yacht the Fairy. The anchors of the Great
Eastern are of enormous size. Acts for the proving and
sale of chain cables and anchors were passed in 1864 and

1871.

Anabaptists, those who baptize at full age and reject infant baptism; see Baptists. The name was first given to Thomas Münzer, Storck, and other fanatics who preached in Saxony in 1521, and excited a rebellion of the lower orders in Germany, which was quelled with bloodshed in 1525. A similar insurrection took place in Westphalia, headed by Matthias, 1533; and, after his assassination, by John Boccold of Leyden, who was crowned "king of Sion" in Münster, 24 June, 1534. Münster was taken in June, 1535; and John was executed Ancient Buildings. A society for their protec13 Feb. 1536. Several anabaptists were executed in Eng-tion from injudicious restoration, etc., was established in land in 1535, 1538, and 1540. On 6 Jan. 1661, about eighty anabaptists in London appeared in arms, headed by their preacher, Thomas Venner, a wine-cooper. They fought desperately, and killed many of the soldiers brought against them. Their leader and sixteen others were executed 19 and 21 Jan.-Annals of England.

Anacreontic Verse, of the bacchanalian strain, named after Anacreon of Teos, the Greek lyric poet, whose odes are much prized. He is said to have been choked by a grapestone in his eighty-fifth year, about 514 B.C. His odes have been frequently translated; Thomas Moore's version was published in 1800.

*By 32 Hen. VIII. c. 42 (1540), surgeons were granted four bodies of executed malefactors for "anathomyes," which privilege was extended in following reigns; but in consequence of the crimes committed by resurrection-men in order to supply the surgical schools (robbing churchyards and even cominitting murder, see Burking), a new statute was passed in 1832, which abated the ignominy of dissection by prohibiting that of executed murderers, and made provision for the wants of surgeons by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of persons dying in workhouses, etc. The act also appointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the schools, and required persons practising anatomy to obtain a license.

It

repealed the clauses of the act of 1828, which directed the

dissection of the body of an executed murderer.

1877; lord Houghton, prof. S. Colvin, Thomas Carlyle, He also first ascended Antisana, 19,260 feet, 10 March; and Cayambe, 19,200 feet, 4 April, 1880. and many eminent artists, members.

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Ancient Monuments in Britain. Bills for their preservation (especially of prehistoric) have been brought into parliament in vain. One by sir John Lubbock, read second time, 7 March, 1877, was withdrawn; again read second time, 19 Feb. 1878; read second time in the lords, 11 March, 1880.

Ancients, see Councils, French.

Ancona, an ancient Roman port on the Adriatic. The mole was built by Trajan, 107. After many changes of rulers (Lombards, Saracens, Greeks, and Germans), Ancona was annexed to the papal states in 1532. It was taken by the French, 1797; retaken by the Austrians, 1799; reoccupied by the French, 1801; restored to the pope, 1802. It was occupied by the French in 1832, evacuated in 1838; and, after an insurrection, was bombarded and captured by the Austrians, 18 June, 1849. The Marches (comprising this city) rebelled against the papal government in Sept. 1860. Lamoricière, the papal general, fled to Ancona after his defeat at Castelfidardo, but was compelled to surrender himself, the city, and the garrison, on 29 Sept. The king of Sardinia entered soon after.

Ancyra, now Angora or Engour, a town in ancient Galatia, Asia Minor. Councils were held here, 314, 358, 375. It was taken by the Persians, 616; by the Saracens, 1085; by the Crusaders, 1102. Near this city, on 28 July, 1402, Timour or Tamerlane defeated and took prisoner the sultan Bajazet, and is said to have conveyed him to Samarcand in a cage.

Andalusia (S. Spain), a province once part of the ancient Lusitania and Bætica. The name is a corruption of Vandalitia, it having been held by the Vandals from 419 to 429, when it was acquired by the Visigoths. The latter were expelled by the Moors in 711, who established the kingdom of Cordova, and retained it till

1236.

Andaman Islands, in the Bay of Bengal. The inhabitants are dwarfs, and in the lowest state of barbarism. At Port Blair, on South Island, made a penal settlement for the Sepoy rebels in 1858, the earl of Mayo, vice by of India, was assassinated by Shere Alee, a con

8 Feb. 1872, when going on board the Glasgow. Andernach, Rhenish Prussia, once an imperial city. Near here, the emperor Charles I., while attempting to deprive his nephews of their inheritance, was totally defeated by one of them, Louis of Saxony, 8 Oct. 876.

Andersonville Prison. An open pen near Andersonville, Georgia, in which prisoners of war were first lodged by the Confederates, 15 Feb. 1864. In one year 44,882 prisoners were received, of whom 12,926 died of starvation and want of proper care. Henry Wirz, one of the prison officers, was hanged 10 Nov. 1865, for his cruelty to prisoners under his charge.

[All these mountains are in Ecuador.] Andorra, a small republic in the Pyrenees, bearing the title of "the valleys and sovereignties of Andorra," was made independent by Charlemagne about 778, certain rights being reserved to the bishop of Urgel. The feudal sovereignty, which long appertained to the counts of Foix, reverted to the French king, Henry IV., in 1589; but was given up in 1790. On 27 March, 1806, an imperial decree restored the old relations between Andorra and France. The republic is now governed by a council elected for four years; but the magistrates are appointed alternately by the French government and the Spanish bishop of Urgel, to both of whom tribute is paid. The population is about 10,000. Andorra, though neutral, was attacked by the Carlists in Sept. 1874.

André's EXECUTION, see United States, 1780. Andrew, St., said to have been martyred by crucifixion, 30 Nov. 69, at Patræ, in Achaia. His festival was instituted about 359. The Royal Society's anniversary is kept on St. Andrew's day. The Russian Order of St. Andrew was instituted in 1698 by Peter I. For the British order, see Thistle.

Andrew's, St. (E. Scotland), made a royal burgh in 1140. Here Robert Bruce held his first parliament in 1309; and here Wishart was burned by archbishop Beaton, 1545, who himself was murdered here in 1546. The university was founded in 1411 by bishop Wardlaw. The cathedral (built 1159-1318) was destroyed by a mob, excited by a sermon of John Knox, June, 1559. Sir R. Sibbald's list of the bishops commences with Killach, 872. The see became archiepiscopal in 1470, ceased soon after 1689, but was reinstituted in 1844. See Bishops.

Andrussov, PEACE OF (30 Jan. 1667), between Russia and Poland, for 13 years, with mutual concessions, although the latter had been generally victorious.

Anemometer (Greek, äveμoç, the wind), a measurer of the strength and velocity of the wind, was invented by Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme velocity was thought by Dr. Lind to be 93 miles per hour. Ösler's and Whewell's anemometers were highly approved of in 1844. "Robinson's anemometer is the simplest and best." Buchan, 1867.

Aneroid, see Barometer.

Angel, a gold coin, impressed with an angel, weighing four pennyweights, valued at 6s. 8d. in the reign of Henry VI., and at 108. in the reign of Elizabeth, 1562. The angelot, a gold coin, value half an angel, was struck at Paris when held by the English, 1431.- Wood.

Angelic Knights oF ST. GEORGE. This order is said to have been instituted by Constantine, who died 337. The Angelici were instituted by the emperor Angelus Comnenus, 1191.-The Angelicæ, an order of nuns, founded at Milan by Louisa Torelli, 1534.

Angers (W. Central France), the Roman Juliomagus, possessing an amphitheatre; afterwards Andegavum, the capital of Anjou (which see). It was frequently besieged, and many councils were held in it between 453 and 1448, relating to ecclesiastical discipline.

Angerstein Gallery, see National Gallery.

Anglesey, called by the Romans Mona (N. Wales), the seat of the Druids, who were massacred in great numbers when Suetonius Paulinus ravaged the isle, 61. It was conquered by Agricola in 78; occupied by the Normans, 1090; and, with the rest of Wales, annexed by Edward I. in 1284. He built the fortress of Beaumaris in 1295. The Menai suspension bridge was erected 1818

Andes, CORDILLERA DE LOS, the great mountain | 25, and the Britannia tubular bridge 1849-50. system of South America,

Chimborazo, perpetually snowclad, was ascended by Alexander von Humboldt to the height of 19,286 feet, 23 June, 1802; by Boussingault and Hall, 19,695 feet, 16 Dec. 1831; by Edward Whymper, 20,545 feet, 3 Jan.; and 20,489 feet, 3 July, 1880. Cotopaxi, volcanic; ascended by Edward Whymper, 19,600 feet, 18 Feb. 1880.

Anglican Church, see Church of England. Angling. Allusion is made to it in the Bible; Amos iv. 2 (787 B.C.).

Oppian wrote his "Halieutics," a Greek epic poem on Fishes and Fishing, about A.D. 198.

In the book on "Hawkynge and Huntynge," by Juliana Ber

ners, or Barnes, prioress of Sopwith, near St. Albans, "em- | (rosaniline) (which see), and several other coloring matprinted at Westmestre by Wynkyn de Worde" in 1496, is ters-aniline blue, 1861; violet, 1863; "night" green, "The treatise of fysshyng with an Angle." Izaak Walton's "Compleat Angler" was first published in etc. After much litigation, the patent of Simpson, Maule, 1653. & Nicholson, for aniline colors, was annulled by the house of lords, 27 July, 1866. See Alizarine.

Anglo-American Association, to cultivate more cordial relations between Great Britain and the United States, established 25 Jan. 1871.

Anglo-Continental Society, founded in 1853 to diffuse the principles of the Church of England abroad: 20th anniversary kept at St. Paul's, 27 Oct. 1874.

Animal Magnetism (to cure diseases by sympathetic affection) was introduced by father Hehl, a Jesuit, at Vienna, about 1774, and had its dupes in France and England about 1788-89. Hehl for a short time associated with Mesmer, but they soon quarrelled. Mr. Perkins (who died in 1799) invented "Metallic Tractors for collecting, condensing, and applying animal magnetism;" but Drs. Falconer and Haygarth put an end to his pretensions by performing many wonders with a pair of wooden tractors. Brande. See Mesmerism. Animal magnetism disproved by commissions of the French Academy of Sciences, 1837-8; investigation closed as of a "dead letter,” 1840.

Anglo-Saxons, or ANGLES, derive their name from a village near Sleswick, called Anglen, whose population (called Angli by Tacitus) joined the first Saxon freebooters. East Anglia was a kingdom of the heptarchy founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs, Uffa, assumed the title of king, 571; the kingdom ceased in 792; see Britain. Cædmon paraphrased part of the Bible in Anglo-Saxon about 680; a translation of the gospels was made by abbot Egbert, of Iona, 721; of Boethius, Orosius, etc., by Alfred, 888. The Anglo-Sax-scopical discoveries were published in the Philosophical on laws were printed by order of government in 1840. A professorship of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford was founded by Dr. Richard Rawlinson in 1795; one at Cambridge by Dr. Joseph

Bosworth in 1867.

Anglo-Turkish Convention, see Turkey, 4 June, 1878.

Angola (S. W. Africa), settled by the Portuguese soon after the discovery by Diego Cam, about 1484. Loanda, their capital, was built 1578.

Angora, see Ancyra.

Angoulême (the Roman Iculisma), capital of the province of Angoumois, Central France, W., was a bishopric in 260. Angoulême became an independent country about 856; was united to the French crown in 1308; was held by the English, 1360 to 1372, in the reign of Edward III. The count of Angoulême became king of

France as Francis I. in 1515.

Angria's FORT, see India, 1756.

Anguilla, Snake Island, West Indies, settled by the British, 1666. Valuable deposits of phosphate of lime were found here in 1859.

Anhalt, HOUSE OF, in Germany, deduces its origin from Berenthobaldus, who made war upon the Thuringians in the sixth century. In 1606 the principality was divided among the four sons of Joachim Ernest by the eldest, John-George. Thus began the four branches -Anhalt-Dessau (descended from John-George); Zerbst, extinct, 1793; Plotsgau, or Coethen, extinct, 1847; and Bernburg, extinct, 1863 (the last duke died without issue, 22 Aug. 1863). The princes of Anhalt became dukes in 1809. Anhalt is an hereditary constitutional monarchy (by law 19 Feb. 1872); population in 1871, 203,437; in 1875, 213,565.

Anhalt joined the North German Confederation, 18 Aug. 1866. Leopold (born Oct. 1, 1794) became duke of Anhalt-Dessau, 9 Aug. 1817, and of Anhalt-Bernburg, 30 Aug. 1863; died 22 May, 1871.

Frederick, duke of Anhalt, born 29 April, 1831.

Heir: Leopold, born 18 July, 1855.

Anholt, ISLAND OF, Denmark, was taken possession of by England, 18 May, 1809, in the French war, on account of Danish cruisers injuring British commerce. The Danes made a fruitless attempt to regain it, 27 March,

1811.

Aniline, an oily alkaline body, discovered in 1826 by Unverdorben among the products of distillation of indigo. From benzole (which see) Bechamp, in 1856, obtained it by successive treatment with concentrated nitric acid and reducing agents. The scientific relations

of aniline have been carefully examined by several chemists, especially by Dr. A. W. Hofmann. It was long known to yield a series of colored compounds, but it was not till 1856 that Mr. W. H. Perkin showed how a violet oxidation-product (mauve) could be applied in dyeing. Aniline is now manufactured on a large scale for the commercial production of "mauve" and "magenta"

Animalcules. Leeuwenhoek's remarkable micro

Transactions of the Royal Society for 1677; in his "Arcana Naturæ," at Leyden, 1696. The great works of Ehrenberg, of Berlin, on the Infusorial Animalculæ, etc., were issued 1838-57. Pritchard's "Infusoria," ed. 1861, is valuable; and Mr. W. Savile Kent's "Manual of Infusoria" is an excellent summary of our present knowledge of animalcules (1881). The Rev. W. H. Dallinger and Dr. Drysdale, by their unwearied, continuous microscopical observations of bacteria and other low forms of life, have greatly increased our knowledge, 1873-8.

Animals, CRUELTY TO. Mr. Martin, M.P., as a senator, zealously labored to repress it; and in 1824 the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals was instituted. Its new house in Jermyn Street, London, was founded 4 May, 1869. It opposed vivisection in 1860, in unison with a French society, and in Oct. 1873, offered premiums for improved trucks for conveying cattle. A jubilee congress of this and similar societies met in London 17 June, 1874. Convictions obtained by the society 1835 to June, 1876, 28,209; see Vivisection. Mr. Martin's act was passed 1822, and similar acts were passed in 1827, 1835, 1837, 1849, and 1854. Dogs were forbidden to be used for draught in 1839. "Fellowship of Animals' Friends," organized about 10 July, 1879; earl of Shaftesbury, president.

The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Henry Bergh, president) was organized in New York city, 1865. 1t has branches and auxiliary societies in many of the chief cities of the Union, and nearly all the states have passed laws forbidding cruelty to animals, under penalty of fine and imprisonment.

Anjou, a province, W. France, was taken by Henry II. of England from his brother Geoffrey, in 1156; their father Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of Anjou, having married the empress Matilda in 1127. It was taken by king John from Philip of France in 1205; was reconquered by Edward III.; relinquished by him at peace of Brétigny in 1360, and given by Charles his brother Louis with the title of duke. sity was formed in 1349.

The univer

1360. Louis I., duke, invested by the pope with the dominions of Joanna of Naples, 1381; his invading army destroyed by the plague, 1383; he dies, 1384.

1384. Louis II., his son, receives the same grant, but is also unsuccessful.

Louis III., adopted by Joanna; dies 1434. 1434. Regnier or René le bon (a prisoner) declared king of Naples, 1435; his daughter, Margaret, married Henry VI. of England, 1445; he was expelled from Anjou by Louis XI., 1474, and his estates confiscated.

Francis, duke of Alençon, brother to Henry III. of France, became duke of Anjou; at one time he favored the Protestants, and vainly offered marriage to Elizabeth of England, 158182; died 1584.

Anjou or BEAUGÉ, Battle of, between the English and French; the latter commanded by the dauphin of France, 22 March, 1421. The English were defeated: the duke of Clarence was slain by sir Allan Swinton, a Scotch knight, and 1500 men perished on the field; the earls of Somerset, Dorset, and Huntington were taken

prisoners. Beaugé was the first battle that turned the tide of success against the English.

Annam, or ANAM, an empire of Asia, to the east of India, comprising Tonquin, Cochin China, part of Cambodia, and various islands in the Chinese Sea; said to have been conquered by the Chinese, 234 B.C., and held by them till A.D. 263. In 1406 they reconquered it, but abandoned it in 1428. After much anarchy, bishop Adran, a French missionary, obtained the friendship of Louis XVI. for his pupil Gia-long, the son of the nominally reigning monarch, and with the aid of a few of his countrymen established Gia-long on the throne, who reigned till his death, in 1821, when his son became king. In consequence of the persecution of the Christians, war broke out with the French, who defeated the army of Annam, 10,000 strong, about 22 April, 1859, when 500 were killed. On 3 June, 1862, peace was made; three provinces were ceded to the French, and toleration of the Christians granted. An insurrection in these provinces against the French, begun about 17 Dec. 1862, was suppressed in Feb. 1863. Ambassadors sent from Annam with the view of regaining the ceded provinces arrived at Paris in Sept. 1863; had no success. Three provinces were annexed to the French empire by proclamation, 25 June, 1867. Several native Christians were massacred by order of a bonze, July, 1868.

| num, accumulating at 10 per cent., compound interest,
amounts in 100 years to 20,000/. The Government An-
nuities and Life Assurances Act was passed in 1864, for the
benefit of the working classes; since it enables the gov-
ernment to grant deferred annuities for sums payable in
Works on annuities were published
small instalments.
by De Witt, 1671; De Moivre, 1724; Simpson, 1742;
Tables by Price, 1792; Milne, 1815; Jones, 1843; Farre,
1864; Institute of Actuaries, 1872.

Annuity Tax: a tax levied to provide stipends for ministers in Edinburgh and Montrose, and which caused much disaffection, was abolished in 1860, and other provisions made for the purpose. These, however, proved equally unpalatable, and its abolition was provided for by an act passed 9 Aug. 1870.

Annunciation OF THE VIRGIN MARY, 25 March, Lady-day (which see), a festival commemorating the tidings brought to Mary by the angel Gabriel (Luke i. 26): its origin is referred to the fourth or fifth century. The religious order of the Annunciation was instituted in 1232, and the military order, in Savoy, by Amadeus, count of Savoy, about 1362, in memory of Amadeus I., who had bravely defended Rhodes against the Turks, 1355. New statutes, 1869.

Anointing, an ancient ceremony observed at the

By a treaty concluded 15 March, 1874, at Saigon, the inde-inauguration of priests, kings, and bishops. Aaron was pendence of the king of Annam was recognized by France, the ports were opened to commerce, and toleration of the Christian religion was secured.

King: Hoang-Nam succeeded his father, Thicutri, 1847.
Annapolis, see Port Royal.
Annates, see First-fruits.

Anno Domini, A.D., the year of our Lord, of Grace, of the Incarnation, of the Circumcision, and of the Crucifixion (Trabeationis). The Christian era commenced 1 Jan. in the middle of the 4th year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753d year of the building of Rome, and in 4714 of the Julian period. This era was invented by a monk, Dionysius Exiguus, or Denys le Petit, about 532. It was introduced into Italy in the sixth century, and ordered to be used by bishops by the council of Chelsea, in 816; but was not generally employed for several centuries. Charles III. of Germany was the first who added "in the year of our Lord" to his reign, in 879. It is now held that Christ was born Friday, 5 April,

4 B.C.

66

Annoyance Juries," of Westminster, chosen from the householders in conformity with 27 Eliz. c. 17, 1585, were abolished in 1861.

Annual Register, a summary of the history of each year (beginning with 1758, and continued to the present time), was commenced by R. & J. Dodsley. (Edmund Burke at first wrote the whole work, but afterwards became only an occasional contributor.-Prior.) Aşimilar work, " Annuaire des Deux Mondes," begun in Paris, 1850.

Annuals, a name given to richly bound volumes, containing poetry, tales, and essays, by eminent authors, illustrated by engravings, published annually, at first in Germany, and also in London in 1823. The duration of the chief of these publications is here given:

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1823-48

1824-44

anointed as high-priest, 1491 B.C.; and Saul as king, 1095 B.C. Alfred the Great is said to have been the first English king anointed, A.D. 871; and Edgar of Scotland, 1098.-The religious rite is derived from the epistle of James v. 14, about A.D. 60. Some authors assert that in 550, dying persons, and persons in extreme danger of death, were anointed with consecrated oil, and that this was the origin of extreme unction (one of the sacraments of the Roman Catholic church).

Anonymous Letters, see Threatening Letters. Anorthoscope, a new optical apparatus, described by Dr. Carpenter in 1868. In it distorted figures lose their distortion when put into rapid motion.

Antalcidas, PEACE OF. In 387 B.C. Antalcidas the Lacedæmonian made peace with Artaxerxes of Persia, on behalf of Greece, but principally in favor of Sparta, giving up the cities of Ionia to the king.

Antarctic Pole, the opposite to the north, or arctic pole; see Southern Continent.

Antediluvian History, Gen. iv., v., vi. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, the number of people in the ancient world previous to the Flood reached to 549,755 millions in the year of the world 1482.

Anthems. Hilary, bishop of Poictiers, and St. Ambrose composed them about the middle of the fourth century. - Lenglet. They were introduced into the church service in 386.-Baker. Ignatius is said to have introduced them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose into the Western, church. They were introduced into the Reformed churches in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1560.

ENGLISH ANTHEM WRITERS: 1520-1625, Tye, Tallis, Byrd, Gibbons; 1650-1720, Humphrey, Blow, Purcell, Croft, Clarke; 1720-1845, Greene, Boyce, Hayes, Kent, Battishill, Attwood, Walmisley.

Anthology, Greek, a collection of popular epi1824-34 grams and small poems written by Archilochus, Sappho, 1827-34 Simonides, Meleager, Plato, and others, between 680 and 1828-56 1830-42 95 B.C. They were collected by Meleager, Philippus, monk in the fourteenth century A.D., and a MS. collection Agathias, and others, especially by Maximus Planudes, a by Constantine Cephalas was found at Heidelberg by Salmasius in 1606; and published by Brunck 1772-6. Translations have been made by Bland, Merivale, and others.

Annuities or PENSIONS. In 1512, 201. a year were given to a lady of the court for services done; and 67. 13s. 4d. for the maintenance of a gentleman, 1536. 137. 6s. 8d. deemed competent to support a gentleman in the study of the law, 1554. An act was passed empowering the government to borrow one million sterling upon an annuity of fourteen per cent., 4-6 Will. & Mary, 1691-3. This mode of borrowing soon afterwards became general among governments, An annuity of 17. 28. 11d. per an

Anthracene, see Alizarine.

Anthracite Coal, first used as fuel by two Connecticut blacksmiths named Gore, 1768-9. First used

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