for domestic purposes by judge Jesse Fell of Wilkes- Governor, sir B. C. C. Pine, 1869; hon. H. T. Irving, 1873; barre, Pa., 1808. hon. Geo. Berkeley, 1874-80. Anthropological Society (äveрwπоç, Greek for man), for promoting the science of man and mankind, held its first meeting on 24 Feb. 1863; Dr. James Hunt, president, in the chair. The Anthropological Review first came out in May, 1863. The Anthropological and Ethnological Societies were amalgamated 17 Jan. 1871, and styled "The Anthropological Institute," sir John Lubbock president. The London Anthropological Society established 1873, ceased 1875. An Anthropological congress at Paris was opened 16 Aug. 1878. Anthropomorphites, a name given to the Audiani, which see. Antimony, a white brittle metal, compounds of which were early known. It was, and is still, used to Anthropophagi (eaters of human flesh), see Can- blacken both men's and women's eyes in the East (2 nibals. Antiburghers, see Burghers. Antichrist (opposed to Christ), 1 John ii. 18, termed the "Man of sin," 2 Thess. ii. 3; of these passages many interpretations have been given, and many myths were current in the middle ages respecting the incarnation of the devil, etc. The term is applied to each other by Roman Catholics and Protestants. Kings ix. 30, and Jer. iv. 30). Mixed with lead it forms printing-type metal. Basil Valentine wrote on antimony about 1410.-Priestley. See Bravo Case. Antinomians (from the Greek ávri, against, and vouóc, law), a name given by Luther (in 1538) to John Agricola, who is said to have held "that it mattered not how wicked a man was if he had but faith." (Opposed to Rom. iii. 28, and v. 1, 2.) He retracted these doc Anti-Corn-law League (for procuring the re-trines in 1540. The Antinomians were condemned by peal of the laws charging duty on the importation of corn), sprung from various metropolitan and provincial associations, was founded at Manchester, 18 Sept. 1838, and supported by Messrs. Charles Villiers, Richard Cobden, John Bright, etc.; John Benjamin Smith, first chairman, died 15 Sept. 1879; see Corn Laws and Protectionists. March and April, 1841 Meetings held in various places.. Antigua, a West Indian island, discovered by Columbus in Nov. 1493; settled by the English in 1632; made a bishopric, 1842. Population in 1874, 35,642. the British parliament, 1648. Antioch, now ANTAKIEH, Syria, built by Seleucus, 300 B.C. (after the battle of Ipsus, 301), acquired the name "Queen of the East." Here the disciples were first called Christians, A.D. 42 (Acts xi. 26). Antioch was taken by the Persians, 540; by the Saracens about 638; recovered for the Eastern emperor, 966; lost again in 1086; retaken by the Crusaders in June, 1098, and made capital of a principality, 1099; and held by them till June, 1268, when it was captured by the sultan of Egypt. It was taken from the Turks in the Syrian war, 1 Aug. 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, but restored at the peace. Antioch suffered much by an earthquake, and about 1600 persons were killed, 3 April, 1872.-The ERA of Antioch is much used by the early Christian writers of Antioch and Alexandria; it placed the Creation 5492 years B.C. 31 councils were held at Antioch, 252-1161. Antipodes. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that antipodes existed (about 388 B.C.). Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate of pope Zachary, is said to have denounced a bishop as a heretic for maintaining this doctrine, A.D. 741. The antipodes of England lie to the southeast of New Zealand, near Antipodes Island. Anti-popes, rival popes elected at various times, esto 1439. In the article Popes, the anti-popes are printpecially by the French and Italian factions, from 1305 ed in italics. have existed in Ireland, 700 B.C. A society was founded by archbishop Parker, Camden, Stow, The " 1659. Antiquaries' feast," mentioned by Ashmole, 2 July, Society of Antiquaries of Edinburgh founded in 1780. as the Celtic Academy. The Society of Antiquaries of France (1814) began in 1805 "The Antiquary," a magazine, began 1880. Apocalypse, or REVELATION, written by St. John in the isle of Patmos about A.d. 95.* Anti-Rent Riots, a series of disturbances, begin- | dant in Norway, and in Sombrero, a small West India ning about 1839, among the tenants of lands of patroons, island. or manorial owners, in the counties of Albany, Rensselaer, and several others, in New York. The trouble arose from the determination of these tenants to cease paying the dues exacted by the landlords under their old feudal tenure. Since 1847 the anti-rent controversy has been mostly in the form of lawsuits, and the course of the decisions has been in favor of the tenants. Antisana, see Andes. Anti-Trinitarians. Theodotus of Byzantium, at the close of the second century, is supposed to have been the first who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus. This doctrine, advocated by Arius about 318, spread widely after the Reformation, when it was adopted by Lælius and Faustus Socinus; see Arians, Socinians, Unitarians. Antium, maritime city of Latium, now Porto d'Anzio, near Rome, after a long struggle for independence, became a Roman colony, at the end of the great Latin war, 340-338 B.C. It is mentioned by Horace, and was a favorite retreat of the emperors and wealthy Romans, who erected many villas in its vicinity. The treasures deposited in the temple of Fortune here were taken by Octavius Cæsar during his war with Antony, 41 B.C. Apocrypha. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, "These books are neyther found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde."-Bible, 1539. The history of the Apocrypha ends 135 B.C. The books were not in the Jewish canon, were rejected at the council of Laodicea about A.D. 366, but were received as canonical by the Roman Catholic church at the council of Trent on 8 April, 1546. Parts of the Apocrypha were admitted to be read as lessons by the church of England, by the 6th article, 1563. Many of these were excluded by the act passed 1871. 2 Maccabees. New Testament. . B. C. .about 323-135 .from about 187-161 Antivari, a seaport on the Adriatic, ceded to Mon- There are also Apocryphal writings in connection with the tenegro by the Berlin treaty, 13 July, 1878. Antonelli Case, see Italy, 1877-9. Antoninus' Wall, see Roman Walls. Antwerp (French, Anvers), the principal port of Belgium, is mentioned in history in 517. It was a small republic in the eleventh century, and was the first commercial city in Europe till the wars of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Its fine exchange built.. 1531 Taken after 14 months' siege by the prince of Parma, Truce of Antwerp (between Spain and United Provinces) After Marlborough's victory at Ramillies, Antwerp sur- The Barrier treaty concluded here.. Taken by marshal Saxe. Occupied by the French... 1648 .6 June, 1706 ..16 Nov. 1715 .9 May, 1746 .1792-3, 1794-1814 Civil war between the Belgians and the House of Orange (see Belgium)... The Belgian troops, having entered Antwerp, were op. posed by the Dutch garrison, who, after a dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel, cannonaded the town with red hot balls... 1830-1 ..27 Oct. 1830 and about 400,000l... 2 Dec. 66 Great fête at the opening of the port by the abolition of Apollinarists, followers of Apollinaris, a reader in the church of Laodicea, who taught (366) that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him; that his flesh was pre-existent to his appearance upon earth, and was sent down from heaven, and conveyed through the Virgin; that there were two sons, one born of God, the other of the Virgin, etc. These opinions were condemned by the council of Constantinople, 381. Apollo, the god of the fine arts, medicine, music, poetry, and eloquence, had many temples and statues, particularly in Greece and Italy. His most splendid temple at Delphi was built 1263 B.C.; see Delphi. His temple at Daphne, built 434 B.C., during a period in which pestilence raged, was burned A.D. 362, and the Christians were accused of the crime.-Lenglet. The statue of Apollo Belvedere, discovered at Antium, in Italy, in 1503, was purchased by pope Julius II., who placed it in the Vatican. Apollonicon, an elaborate musical instrument constructed on the principle of the organ (keys and barrel), was invented by Messrs. Flight & Robson, of St. Martin's lane, Westminster, and exhibited by them first in 1817.-Timbs. Apologies FOR CHRISTIANITY were addressed by Justin Martyr to the emperor Antoninus Pius about 139, and to the Roman senate about 164. Other apologies were written by Quadratus, Aristides, and other early fathers of the church. Apostles (Greek, áπóσroλoç, one sent forth). Twelve were appointed by Christ, A.D. 31-viz., Simon Peter and Andrew (brothers), James and John (sons of Zebedee), Philip, Nathanael (or Bartholomew), Matthew (or Levi), Thomas, James the Less (son of Alphæus), Simon the Canaanite and Jude or Thaddeus (brothers), and Judas Iscariot. Matthias was elected in the room of Judas Iscariot, A.D. 33 (Acts i.); and Paul and Barnabas were appointed by the Holy Spirit, A.D. 45 (Acts xiii. 2). *Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic, and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries many churches disowned it; and in the fourth cen- . tury it was excluded from the sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held in 1545 et seq. Although the book had been rejected by Luther, Michael's, and others, and its authority questioned in all ages, from the time of Justin About 1856 it Martyr (who wrote his first "Apology for Christians" in A.D. 139), yet its canonical authority is still almost universally ac It is abun- knowledged. Apostles' Creed, erroneously attributed to the apostles, is mentioned as the Roman creed by Rufinus (died about 410). Irenæus, bishop of Lyons (died 202), gives a creed resembling it. Its repetition in public worship was ordained in the Greek church at Antioch, and in the Roman church in the eleventh century, whence it passed to the church of England. Apostolical, see Canons and Fathers. Apostolici, a sect, at the end of the second century, which renounced marriage, wine, flesh, etc. A second sect, founded by Sagarelli about 1261, wandered about, clothed in white, with long beard, dishevelled hair, and bare heads, accompanied by women called spiritual sisters, preaching against the growing corruption of the church of Rome, and predicting its downfall. They renounced baptism, the mass, purgatory, etc., and by their enemies were accused of gross licentiousness. Sagarelli was burned alive at Parma in 1300, and his followers were dispersed in 1307, and extirpated about 1404. Apothecary (literally, a keeper of a storehouse). On 10 Oct. 1345, Edward III. settled sixpence per diem for life on Coursus de Gangeland, Apothecarius London', for taking care of him during his severe illness in Scotland.-Rymer's Fœdera. See Pharmacy and Medical Council. Apothecaries exempted from serving on juries or other London Apothecaries' Company separated from the The Dublin guild incorporated... 1712 1670 1874 ..Jan. 1755 1745 Apotheosis, a ceremony of the ancient nations of the world by which they raised their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The deifying a deceased emperor was begun at Rome by Augustus, in favor of Julius Cæsar, 13 B.C.-Tillemont. which first sat 8 Nov. 1875: present the lord chancellor, lord Coleridge, baron Bramwell, and justice Brett. The house of lords was reconstructed as a court of final ap peal by the Appellate Jurisdiction Act introduced by lord Cairns, 11 Feb., and passed 11 Aug. 1876. Two lords of appeal were to be appointed; to be peers for life. Appeals may be heard during prorogation or dissolution of parliament. The new Supreme Court of Appeal first sat 21 Nov. 1876. Appenzell, a Swiss canton, threw off the supremacy of the abbots of St. Gall early in the fifteenth century, and became the thirteenth member of the Swiss confed eration, 1513. Appian Way, a Roman road made by Appius Claudius Cæcus while censor, 312 B.C. Apples. Several kinds are indigenous to England; but those in general use have been brought at various times from the continent. Richard Harris, fruiterer to Henry VIII., is said to have planted a great number of the orchards in Kent; and lord Scudamore, ambassador to France in the reign of Charles I., planted many of those in Herefordshire. Ray reckons 78 varieties of apples in his day (1688). In 1866 there were 1500 varieties in the collection of the Royal Horticultural Society, many not worth cultivation, Apportionment Act (for rents) passed 1 Aug. 1870. Appraisers. The valuation of goods for another was an early business in England; and so early as 1283, by the statute of merchants, or of Acton-Burnel, “it was enacted that if they valued the goods of parties too high, the appraisers should take them at such price as they have limited." In 1845 their annual license was raised from 10s. to 40s. Apprentices. Those of London were obliged to wear blue cloaks in summer and blue gowns in winter, in the reign of queen Elizabeth, 1558. Ten pounds was then a great apprentice fee. From twenty to one hundred pounds were given in the reign of James I.-Stow's Survey. The apprentice tax enacted 43 Geo. III. 1802. The term of seven years, not to expire till the apprentice was twenty-four years old, required by the statute of Elizabeth (1563), was abolished in 1814. An act for the protection of apprentices, etc., was passed in 1851. The apprentices of London have been, at times, very riotons; they rose in insurrection against foreigners on Evil Appeal or AssIZE OF BATTLE. By the old law of England, a man charged with murder might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt or innocence. In 1817 a young maid, Mary Ashford, was be-May-day (which see), 1 May, 1517. lieved to have been violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, on trial, was acquitted. In an appeal, he claimed his right by wager of battle, which the court allowed; but the appellant (the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and the accused was discharged, 16 April, 1818. This law was struck off the statute-book, by 59 Geo. III. c. 46, 1819. In 1631 lord Rea impeached Mr. David Ramsey of treason, and offered battle in proof; a commission was appointed, but the duel was prohibited by king James I. Appeals. In the time of Alfred (869-901), appeals lay from courts of justice to the king in council; but being soon overwhelmed with appeals from all parts of England, he framed the body of laws which long served as the basis of English jurisprudence. The house of lords is the highest court of appeal in civil causes. Courts of appeal at the exchequer chamber, in error from the judgments of the superior and criminal courts, were regulated by statutes in 1830 and 1848. Appeals from English tribunals to the pope were first introduced about 1151, were long vainly opposed, and were abolished by Henry VIII. 1534; restored by Mary, 1554; again abolished by Elizabeth, 1559. A proposition for establishing an imperial court of appeal submitted to the house of lords by the lord chancellor Hatherly, 15 April; was referred to a select committee, 30 April, 1872. A similar proposition by lord chancellor Selborne, 13 Feb. 1873; see Privy Council, and Justices, Lord. The jurisdiction of the house of lords as a court of appeal was abolished by the Judicature Act, 1873. The abolition was suspended in 1875; and a provisional court established, Appropriation Clause, of the Irish Tithe Bill of 1835, brought forward by lord John Russell, whereby any surplus revenue that might accrue by the working of the act was to be appropriated for the education of all classes of the people. The principle was adopted by the commons, but rejected by the lords in 1835 and 1836, and was abandoned. Appropriations (property taken from the church) began in the time of William I. The parochial clergy, then commonly Saxons, were impoverished by the bishops and higher clergy (generally Normans) to enrich the monasteries possessed by the conqueror's friends. Where the tithes were so appropriated, the vicar had only such a competency as the bishop or superior thought fit to allow. Pope Alexander IV. complained of this as the bane of religion, the destruction of the church, and a poison that had infected the whole nation. Lay appropriations began after the dissolution of the monasteries, 1536. Apricot, Prunus Armeniaca, from Asia Minor, said to have been first planted in England about 1540, by the gardener of Henry VIII. April, the fourth month of our year, the second of the ancient Romans. Apteryx (wingless), a bird, a native of New Zealand, first brought to this country in 1813, and deposited in the collection of the earl of Derby. Fossil specimens discovered in New Zealand by Mr. Walter Mantell in of a gigantic species of this bird (named Dinornis) were 1843 and since. Apulia, a province in S. E. Italy. The people favored Hannibal, and were severely punished by the Romans at his retreat, 207 B.C. Apulia was conquered by the Normans, whose leader Guiscard received the title of duke of Apulia from pope Nicholas II. in 1059. After many changes of masters, it was absorbed into the kingdom of Naples in 1265. Aquarii, a sect said to have been founded by Tatian in the second century, who forbore the use of wine even in the sacrament; during persecution they met secretly at night. For this they were censured by Cyprian (martyred, 258). Aquarium, or AQUAVIVARIUM, a vessel containing water (marine or fresh) in which animals and plants may coexist, mutually supporting each other; snails being introduced as scavengers. In 1849 Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded in growing seaweeds in artificial sca-water; in 1850 Mr. R. Warington demonstrated the conditions necessary for the growth of animals and plants in jars of water; and in 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, were set up by Mr. D. Mitchell. In 1854 Mr. Gosse published "The Aquarium." Mr. W. Alford Lloyd, late of Portland Road, London, who, by his enterprise in collecting specimens, did much to increase the value and interest of aquaria, has been much employed in erecting aquaria. The great aquarium (50 yards long and 12 wide) at the Jardin d'Acclimatation at Paris, was constructed under his direction in 1860. He also constructed the aquarium at Hamburg and others. That at Brighton was inaugurated by prince Arthur, 30 March, and publicly opened by the mayor, 10 Aug. 1872. That at the Crystal Palace was opened Jan. 1872. The Royal Aquarium and Summer and Winter Garden Society was established 1874; the building at Westminster, planned by Mr. Wybrow Robertson and Mr. A. Bedborough, was opened by the duke of Edinburgh, 22 Jan. 1876. A woman surnamed "Zazel" permitted herself to be safely shot from a cannon (by a spring or other mechanical contrivance); summer of 1877, et seq. Living whales shown here soon died; see Whale; Sept., 1877; June, 1878. The Imperial theatre added, 1870. Aquatint, see Engraving. Aqueduct, an artificial watercourse on an inclined plane. Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first Roman aqueduct, as well as the Appian Way, about 312 B.C.* There are now some remarkable aqueducts in Europe: that at Lisbon is of great extent and beauty; that at Segovia has 129 arches; and that at Versailles is three miles long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in three stories. The stupendous aqueduct on the Ellesmere canal, in England (1007 feet in length, and 126 feet high) was completed by T. Telford, and opened 26 Dec. 1805. The Lisbon aqueduct was completed in 1738, and the Croton aqueduct, near New York, was constructed between 1837 and 1842. The aqueduct to supply Marseilles with water was commenced in 1830. An aqueduct to supply London with water from the Welsh lakes was proposed by Mr. J. F. Bateman in 1865. Aquidaban (Paraguay). Here the war with Brazil was ended with the defeat and death of president Lopez, 1 March, 1870. Aquila (S. Italy). Near here the Arragonese under the condottiere Braccio Forte-Braccio were defeated by the allied papal, Neapolitan, and Milanese army under Jacob Caldora, 2 June, 1424. Braccio, a wounded prisoner, refused to take food, and died, 5 June. Aquileia (Istria), made a Roman colony about 180 B.C. and fortified A.D. 168. Constantine II. was slain in a battle with Constans, fought at Aquileia towards the close of March, 340. Maximus defeated and slain by Theodosius, near Agileia, 28 July, 388. Theodosius defeated Eugenius and Arbogastes, the Gaul, near Aquileia, and Remains of these and other noble aqueducts, constructed by emperors, still remain, and some supply water to the city. remained sole emperor, 6 Sept. 391. Eugenius was put to death, and Arbogastes died by his own hand, mortitied by his overthrow. St. Ambrose held a synod here in 381. In 452 Aquileia was almost totally destroyed by Attila the Hun, and near it in 489 Theodoric and the Ostrogoths totally defeated Odoacer, the king of Italy. Aquitaine, the Roman province Aquitania (S.W. France), conquered by the Romans 28 B.C.; by the Visigoths, A.D. 418; taken from them by Clovis in 507. Henry II. of England obtained it with his wife Eleanor, 1152. It was erected into a principality for Edward the Black Prince in 1362; but was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of England on the conquest of this duchy by Henry V. in 1418. The province was lost in the reign of Henry VI. Arabia (W. Asia). The terms Petria (stony), Felix (happy), and Deserta are said to have been applied to its divisions by Ptolemy, about A.D. 140. The Arabs claim descent from Ishmael, the eldest son of Abraham, born 1910 B.C., Gen. xvi. Arabia was unsuccessfully invaded by Gallus, the Roman governor of Egypt, 24 B.C. A.D. 622, the Arabians under the name of Saracens, followers of Mahomet (born at Mecca, 570), their general and prophet, commenced their course of conquest; see Mahometanism. In Arabia was conquered by the Ottomans 1518-39. The Arabs greatly favored literature and the sciences, especially mathematics, astronomy, and chemistry. The Koran was written in Arabic (622-632). The Bible was printed in Arabic in 1671; see Wahabees. The aggression of the Turks on the South Arabs excited jealousy in England, and was checked by the sultan, Nov. 1873. Arabian Nights' Entertainments (or 1001 Tales) were translated into French by Galland, and published in 1704; but their authenticity was not acknowledged till many years after. The best English translation from the Arabic is that of Mr. E. W. Lane, published in 1839, with valuable notes and beautiful illus trations. Arabic Figures (1, 2, 3, etc.), see Arithmetic. AraBIC NEWSPAPER," Mar-átu-'l-Ahwâl” (“Mirror of Passing Events "), published in London, end of 1876. Arabici, a sect which sprang up in Arabia about 207, whose distinguishing tenet was, that the soul dies with the body, and will rise again with it. Aragon, part of the Roman Tarraconensis, a kingdom, N.E. Spain, was conquered by the Carthaginians, who were expelled by the Romans about 200 B.C. became an independent monarchy in A.D. 1035; see Spain. Aram, the ancient name of Syria (which see). It Aranjuez (Central Spain), contains a fine royal palace, at which several important treaties were concluded. On 17 March, 1808, an insurrection broke out here against Charles IV. and his favorite, Godoy, the prince of peace. The former was compelled to abdicate in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII., 19 March. Ararat, a mountain in Armenia (about 17,112 feet above the sea-level), on which Noah's ark is supposed to have rested, B.C. 2349, now termed by the Persians, Kohi-Nuh (Noah's mountain); by the Armenians, Masis; by the Turks, Agri-Dagh. It was ascended by Dr. Parrot. 27 Sept. 1829; by Major Stuart, 1856, and by others since. Mr. James Bryce, who as cended 11, 12 Sept. 1876, described the summit as a little plain of snow, silent and desolate, with a bright, green sky above; the view stern, green, and monotonous. Araucania, a province in South America. Its inhabitants maintained almost unceasing war with the Spaniards from 1537 to 1773, when their independence was recognized. They are now nominally subject to Chili. Arausio (now ORANGE), S. E. France. Through the jealousy of the Roman proconsul Q. Servilius Cæpio, who would not wait for the arrival of the army of the consul C. Manlius, both were defeated here by the Cimbri with much slaughter, 105 B.C. Arbela. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the Great and Darius Codomanus decided the fate of Persia, 1 Oct. 331 B.C., on a plain in Assyria, between Arbela and Gaugamela. The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 foot and 40,000 horse; the Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 foot and 7000 horse. Arrian. The gold and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, which fell to Alexander from this victory, amounted to thirty millions sterling; and the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 5000 camels.—Plutarch. Arbitration. Submission to arbitration was authorized and made equivalent in force to the decision of a jury by 9 & 10 Will. III. (1698). Submissions to arbitration may be made rules of any court of law or equity, and arbitrators may compel the attendance of witnesses, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 42 (1833); see Ouzel Galley. The Common Law Procedure Act (1854) authorizes the judges of superior courts to order compulsory arbitration; and, by an act passed in 1859, railway companies may settle disputes with each other by arbitration. The Arbitration (Masters and Workmen) Act was passed 6 Aug. 1872; see Prud'hommes. Arbutus. The Arbutus Andrachne, Oriental strawberry-tree, was brought to England from the Levant about 1724. early kings, about 588 B.C. The Chinese bridges, which are very ancient, are of great magnitude, and are built with stone arches similar to those that have been considered a Roman invention.*-The TRIUMPHAL arches of the Romans formed a leading feature in their architecture. The arch of Titus (A.D. 80), that of Trajan (114), and that of Constantine (312), were magnificent. The arches in our parks in London were erected about 1828. The Marble Arch, which formerly stood before Buckingham Palace (whence it was removed to Cumberland Gate, Hyde Park, in 1851) was modelled from the arch of Constantine; see Ilyde Park. Archæology, the science of antiquities; see Anti Archangel (N. Russia), a city, is thus named from a monastery founded here, and dedicated to St. Michael in 1584. The passage to Archangel was discovered by the English navigator Richard Chancellor in 1553, and it was the only seaport of Russia till the formation of the docks at Cronstadt, and foundation of St. Petersburg in 1703. The dreadful fire here, by which the cathedral and upwards of 3000 houses were destroyed, occurred in June, 1793. Archbishop (Greek аруiɛñíσкожоç), a title given in the fourth and fifth centuries to the bishops of chief cities, such as Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Constantinople, who presided over the other metropolitans and bishops in the districts attached to those places. The word is first found in the Apology against the Arians by Athanasius, who died 373. The Eastern archbishops have since been styled patriarchs.—Riddle. Arcades, or walks arched over. The principal in London are the Burlington Arcade, opened 20 March, 1819; the Lowther Arcade, Strand, opened 1831; between Old Bond Street and Albemarle Street, opened May, 1880; see Strand and Exeter Change. The Royal Arcade, Dublin, opened June, 1820, was burned to the ground, 25 April, 1837. The Great Western Arcade, Bir-Before the Saxons came to England, there were three archmingham, opened 28 Sept. 1876. Arcadia, in the centre of the Peloponnesus, Greece, named after Arcas, a king. The Arcadians regarded their nation as the most ancient of Greece, and older than the moon (πроσέλŋvɩ, which word Döderlein conjectures to mean Pre-Hellenic). Pelasgus is said to have taught them to feed on acorns, as being more nutritious than herbs, their former food; for which they honored him as a god, 1521 B.C. Arcadia had twentyfive kings, whose history is altogether fabulous. Magna Græca, in S. Italy, said to have been colonized by 1521 Pelasgus begins his reign.. Aristocrates I. (of Orchomenus) put to death for offering violence to the priestess of Diana. Aristocrates II. stoned; a republic founded. Supremacy of Sparta (acknowledged 560) abolished by the Thebans; Megalopolis founded by Epaminondas.. The Arcadians make alliance with Athens, and are defeated by Archidamus Arcadia, having joined the Achæan league, on its suppression is annexed by Rome.. 371 367 715 681 146 bishops, London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk; but soon after St. Augustin settled the metropolitan see at CauterYork continued archiepiscopal; but London and Caerleon lost bury, 602; see Canterbury. the dignity; see St. David's. The bishoprics in Scotland were under the jurisdiction of the archbishop of York until the erection of the archiepiscopal sees of St. Andrew's and Glasgow in 1470 and 1491; these last were discontinued at the Revolution; see Glasgow and St. Andrew's. The bishop of Moray, etc., is now styled Primus. The rank of archbishop was early in Ireland; see Ferns. Four archbishops were constituted, Armagh, Cashel, Dublin. and Tuam; (until then the archbishop of Canterbury had jurisdiction over the Irish as well as English bishops, in like manner as the archbishop of York had jurisdiction over those of Scotland), 1151. Of these four archbishoprics two were reduced to bishoprics (Cashel and Tuam) conformably with the stat, 3 and 4 Will. IV. by which also the number of sees in Ireland was to be reduced from twenty-two to twelve (see Bishops, Cashel, Tuam; Pallium, etc.), 1833. Archchamberlain. The elector of Brandenburg was appointed the hereditary archchamberlain of the German empire by the golden bull of Charles IV. in 1356, and in that quality he bore the sceptre before the emperor. Archchancellors were appointed under the two first races of the kings of France (418-986); and when their territories were divided, the archbishops of Mentz, Cologne, and Treves became archchancellors of Germany, Italy, and Arles. Archdeacon, a name early given to the first or Arcadians, an ultra-conservative French political eldest deacon, who attended on the bishop without any club, composed of a section of the majority in the cham-power; but since the council of Nice his function has bers, and opposed to liberal measures, even when emanating from the emperor (such as the new press law). It derived its name from Rue de l'Arcade, where its meetings were held: Feb. 1868. Arch. It appears in early Egyptian and Assyrian architecture. The oldest arch in Europe is probably in the Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, constructed under the The bridge of Chester, whose span is 200 feet, was com menced in 1829. The central arch of London Bridge is 152 feet; and the three cast-iron arches of Southwark Bridge. which rest on massive stone piers and abutments are, the two side ones 210 feet each, and the centre 240 feet: thus the cen feet in the span, and the long famed R'alto at Venice, by 157 tre arch exceeds the admired bridge of Sunderland by four feet; see Bridges. |