become a dignity above a priest. The appointment in these countries is referred to the eighth century. There are seventy-five archdeacons in England (1878). The archdeacon's court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity; an appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, by 24 Henry VIII. (1532). Vitruvius. EMINENT ARCHITECTS. William of Wickham.. Bernini. Archery is ascribed to Apollo, who communicated J. Vanbrugh it to the Cretans. 1055 Ishmael "became an archer" (Gen. xxi. 20).. ....B.C. 1892 .previous to A. D. Harold and his two brothers were killed by arrows shot from the cross-bows of the Norman soldiers at the battle of Hastings.... Richard I. revived archery in England in 1190, and was himself killed by an arrow.. The victories of Crecy (1346), Poictiers (1356), and Agin- The citizens of London formed into companies of archers Roger Ascham's "Toxophilus, the School of Shooting, published.. 353 1036 1199 1397 1538 1571 1676 Scorton Annual Arrow Meetings-a silver arrow shot for; [See Artillery Company, Toxophilites, etc.] James Gibbs. R. and J. Adam.. Sir George Gilbert Scott.. Born. Died. An Architectural Club was formed in 1791. An Architectural Society existed in London in 1806. The ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS was founded in 1834-Earl de Grey, president, 1835-61. The Architectural Society, established in 1831, was united to the Institute in 1842. The ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION began about 1846. The ARCHITECTURAL MUSEUM, Westminster, opened 21 July, 1869. Mr. James Fergusson's "History of Architecture" (the best), 2d ed. 1874-6. Archons. When royalty was abolished at Athens, in memory of king Codrus, killed in battle, 1044 or 1068 B.C., the executive government was vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose office continued for life. Medon, eldest son of Codrus, was the first archon. The office was limited to ten years, 752 B.C., and to one year 683 B.C. Arcola (Lombardy), the site of battles between the French under Bonaparte and the Austrians under fieldmarshal Alvinzi, fought 14-17 Nov. 1796. The Austrians lost 18,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, four flags, and eighteen guns. The French lost about 15,000, and became masters of Italy. In one contest Bonaparte, in most imminent danger, was rescued by the impetuosity of his troops. Arcot (East Indies). This city (founded 1716) was taken by col. Clive, 31 Aug. 1751; was retaken, 1758, but again surrendered to col. Coote, 10 Feb. 1760; besieged and taken by Hyder Ali, when the British under col. Baillie suffered severe defeat, 31 Oct. 1780. Arcot has been subject to Great Britain since 1801; see India. Arches, COURT OF, the most ancient consistory court, chiefly a court of appeal from inferior jurisdictions within the province of Canterbury; it derives its name from the church of St. Mary-le-Bow (Sancta Maria de Arcubus), Arctic Expeditions, see Northwest Passage and London, where it was formerly held, and whose top is Franklin's Expedition. On the German Arctic society apraised on stone pillars built archwise.-Cowell. Appeals plying to the German government, a committee of 13 from this court lie to the judicial committee of the privy professors was appointed, who in their report recomcouncil, by statute, 1832. The judge, Dr. Stephen Lush-mended that no more expeditions should be sent out; ington (appointed in 1828), resigned 1 July, 1867; suc- but that stations should be established for scientific obceeded by sir Robert J. Phillimore, who resigned 1875. servations; 1876. Lord Penzance then became judge in the court of arches. Architecture (from the Greek ȧpxITEKT, chief artificer). The five great orders are, the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian (Greek); the Tuscan and Composite (Roman). Gothic began to prevail in the ninth century; see the Orders and Gothic. The Pyramids of Egypt, begun....... Solomon's Temple, begun.. Birs Nimroud, in Assyria. The Doric order begins.. Doric temple at Egin. ...about B. c. 1500 1004 London Central Arctic Commillee, formed to promote another expedition, 7 July, 1879. Ardagh, an ancient prelacy in Ireland, founded by St. Patrick, who made his nephew, Mell, the first bishop, 454. This see, held with Kilmore since 1742, was held in commendam with Tuam (which see). It was united with Kilmore in 1839, and with Elphin in 1841. Ardahan, a town in Turkish Armenia, ceded to ..about 900 Russia by the Berlin treaty, 13 July, 1878. Ardfert and Aghadoe, bishoprics in Ireland long ..about 650 Temple of Jupiter and Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, founded 616 united: the former was called the bishopric of Kerry; of Mars, through the tradition that Mars was the first | The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having who was tried for the murder of Halirrhotius, who had been adorned with the figure of a ram, led to the fiction violated his daughter Alcippe. The powers of this court that the journey was to recover the golden fleece. This were enlarged by Solon about 594 B.C., and diminished is the first naval expedition on record. Many kings and by Pericles, 461 B.C. Paul preached on Mars' hill A.D. heroes accompanied Jason, whose ship was called Argo, 52 (Acts xvii.). from its builder. Areometer, or Aræometer (from Greek ȧpaιós, thin), an instrument for measuring the density and specific gravity of fluids. Baumé described his areometer in 1768. Others have been made by Nicholson and Mohr. Arequipa, Peru, founded by Pizarro, 1539; was destroyed by an earthquake, 13 Aug. 1868. Arethusa, see Naval Battles, 1778, and Chichester. Arezzo, near the ancient Arretium, or Aretinum, an Etrurian city, which made peace with Rome for 30 years, 308 B.C., was besieged by the Galli Senones, about 283 B.C., who defeated the Roman army Metellus sent to its relief-a disgrace avenged signally by Dolabella. Arezzo was an ancient bishopric: the cathedral founded in 1277. It is renowned as the birthplace of Maecenas, Petrarch, Vasari, and other eminent men. Michael Angelo was born in the vicinity. Argonauts of St. Nicholas, military knights; an order founded by Charles III. of Naples, 1382. been founded either by Inachus, 1856 B.C., or his son, Argos, the most ancient city of Greece, said to have Phoroneus, 1807, received its name from Argus, the fourth of the Inachidæ, 1711 B.C. ..B.C. 1552 Reign of Triopas; Polycaon seizes part of the kingdom Feast of the Flambeaux, instituted in honor of Hyperm- naus. tus 1475 1425 1425 The kingdom divided by the brothers Acrisius and Pro- Argandab, a river in Afghanistan; see Afghanis- The Heraclidæ retake the Peloponnesus, and Temenus tan, 1880. Argaum, in the Deccan, India, where sir Arthur Wellesley, on 29 Nov. 1803, thoroughly defeated and subjugated the rajah of Berar and the Mahratta chief Scindiah. Argentaria, Alsace (now COLMAR, N.E. France), where the Roman emperor Gratian totally defeated the Alemanni and secured the peace of Gaul, May, 378. Argentine (or LA PLATA) Confederation (S. America), 14 provinces (Buenos Ayres, one). This country was discovered by the Spaniards in 1515, settled by them in 1553, and formed part of the viceroyalty of Peru till 1778, when it became that of Rio de la Plata. It joined the insurrection in 1811, and became independent in 1816. It was at war with Brazil from 1826 to 1828 for the possession of Uruguay, which became independent as Montevideo; and at war with France from 1838-40. Population, in 1869, 1,877,490. See Buenos Ayres. seizes Argos... Pheidon's prosperous rule. ...... War with Sparta: combat of 300 on each side A 1313 1102 770-730 347 514 495-490 471 468 420 417 395 272 229 146 reaction-alliance with Athens resumed.. Pyrrhus of Macedon, besieging Argos, slain... Argos governed by tyrants supported by Macedon; freed; joins the Achæan league. Argos taken from the Venetians. Subjugated by the Romans.. ...A.D. 1686 1826 Taken by the Turks 1716, who held it until.. Argyle (W. Scotland), bishopric of, founded about 1200, Evaldus being the first bishop; the diocese, previously united with Dunkeld, ended 1688. Argyle and the Isles is a post-revolution bishopric, 1847; see Bishoprics. Argyll Rooms, Oxford Street, London, opened for musical and other entertainments early in the nineteenth century; re-erected by Nash, 1818; held by the Philharmonic Society, 1813-30. Here appeared Spohr, 1820; Weber, 3 April, 1826; and Mendelssohn, 25 May, 1829. While held by M. Chabert, the fire-king, the building was burned down, 5, 6 Feb. 1830. The new building was eventually converted into shops. Arian, or ARYAN (in Sanskrit signifying noble, warlike), a term now frequently applied to the hypothetical Indo-Germanic family of nations, including the Greek, Roman, and Teutonic races. Arians, followers of Arius of Alexandria, who preached against the divinity of Christ, about 315, and died in 336. The controversy was taken up by Constantine, who presided at the council of Nice, June to Aug. 325, when the Arians were condemned; but their doctrine long prevailed. It was favored by Constantius II. 341; and carried into Africa by the Vandals in the fifth century, and into Asia by the Goths. Servetus published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and was burned, 1553. Leggatt, an Arian, was burned at Smithfield in 1614; see Athanasian Creed, Socinians, and Unitarians. Arica, Peru, destroyed by an earthquake, and inundated by waves of the sea, 13 Aug. 1868. Arikera, near Seringapatam. Here lord Cornwallis defeated Tippoo Sahib, 15 May, 1791. Aristotelian Philosophy: the most comprehensive ever devised by man. Aristotle was born at Stageira (hence termed the Stageirite), 304 B.C.; was a pupil of Plato from 364 to 347; became preceptor of Alexander, son of Philip of Macedon, in 342; and died in 322. He divided the circle of knowledge into metaphysics and logic, physics (including part of the science of mind), and ethics. His philosophy was too much exalted by the schoolmen during the middle ages, and too much depreciated after the Reformation. His works on natural science contain a vast collection of facts and an extraordinary mixture of sound and chimerical opinions. To him is attributed the assertion that nature abhors a vacuum, an opinion now maintained by emi nent modern philosophers. An Aristotelian Society, for the systematic study of philosophy, was founded in the spring of 1880; Dr. Shadworth H. Hodgson, president. Arithmetic is said to have been introduced from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 600 B.C. The Chinese used the abacus, or swanpan, at an early period. It is asserted that the ancient Hindus adopted a system having ten as a basis. The oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th, 130 8th, and 9th books of his "Elements"). .... about B.C. 300 The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used...A.D. Diophantus of Alexandria was the author of thirteen books of arithmetical questions (of which six are now extant)..... .....about 156 Notation by nine digits and zero (Arabic figures), known at least as early as the sixth century in Hindostan; introduced from thence into Arabia, about 900; into Spain, about 980; into France, by Gerbert, 991; into England, probably in the fourteenth or fifteenth century. The date in Caxton's "Mirrour of the World," Arabic characters, is...... 1480 a powerful Roman city, was made capital of the kingdom of Provence by Boson in A.D. 879; aud of the kingdom of Arles or Transjurane Burgundy by Rodolph II. in 933. He was succeeded by Conrad I. 937; and by Rodolph III. 993; who at his death, 1032, transmitted his kingdom to the emperor Courad II. After various changes, it was annexed to France in 1486. Many councils (314-1275) were held at Arles; the most celebrated in 314, when British bishops were present. by Philip II., king of Spain, for the subjugation of Eng Armada, THE INVINCIBLE, collected and equipped land. The following particulars are taken from Morant's historical account (accompanying Pine's engravings of the tapestries formerly in the house of lords), printed 1739: It consisted of 132 ships (besides caravels), 3165 cannon, 8766 sailors, 2088 galley-slaves, 21,855 soldiers, 1355 volunteers (noblemen, gentlemen, and their attendants), and 150 monks, with Martin Alarco, vicar of the Inquisition-the whole under the command of the duke of Medina-Sidonia... 1587 The English fleet under lord Charles Howard, sir Francis Armagh, N. Ireland, of which it was the metropolis from the fifth to the ninth century, the seat of the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, founded by St. Patrick, its first bishop, about 444, and said to have built the first cathedral, 450. Six saints of the Roman calendar have been bishops of this see. In the king's book, by an extent taken 15 James I., it is valued at 400%. ster Arithmometer, see Calculating-machines. Arizona, a territory of the United States, originally part of New Mexico, was organized 24 Feb. 1863; capi-ling a year; and until lately was estimated at 15,000/ tal, Tucson. It was colonized by the Jesuits in the seyenteenth century. Ark. Mount Ararat (which see) is venerated from a belief of its being the place on which Noah's Ark rested, after the universal deluge, 2349 B.C.; see Gen. vi., vii. Some assert Apamea, in Phrygia, to be the spot; and medals have been struck there with a chest on the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves; this place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The Ark of the Covenant, made by Moses to contain the two tables of the law, 1491 B.C. (Exod. xxv.), was placed in Solomon's temple, 1004 B.C. (1 Kings viii.). Arkadi, a Greek blockade-runner during the Cretan insurrection, was destroyed by the Turkish vessel Izeddin, off Crete, 19 Aug. 1867, after at least 22 successful voyages. Arkansas, originally part of Louisiana, ceded by Spain to France, 1763; and purchased by the United States in 1803; was made a territory, 1819; and a state 1836; seceded from the Union 6 May, 1861; national authority re-established, and a loyal government organized 1864; readmitted to representation in Congress, 1868. Several battles were fought in this state in 1862 and 1863. Pop. 1880, 802,564. Capital, Little Rock. per annum. The see was reconstituted (see Pallium) in 1151.-Beatson. Armagh was ravaged by the Danes on Easter-day, 852, and by O'Neil in 1564. Armagnacs, a political party in France, followers of the duke of Orleans, murdered by the Burgundians, 23 Nov. 1407, derived their name from his father-in-law, the count of Armagnac. About 3500 of this party were massacred at Paris in June, 1418, by their opponents, the followers of the duke of Burgundy. Armed Neutrality, the confederacy against England, formed by Russia, Sweden, and Denmark, 1780; ended, 1781; renewed, and a treaty ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent powers, 16 Dec. 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms being contrary to the maritime system of England, the British cabinet remonstrated, war ensued, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Denmark before Copenhagen, 2 April, 1801. This event, and the murder of the emperor Paul of Russia, led to the dissolution of the Armed Neutrality. Armenia, Asia Minor. Here Noah is said to have resided when he left the ark, 2347 B.C. Armenia, after forming part of the Assyrian, Median, and Persian empires, became subject to the Greek kings of Syria, after the defeat of Antiochus the Great, 190 B.C. The Romans established the kingdoms of Armenia Major and Minor, but their influence over them was frequently interrupted by the aggressions of the Parthians. In all their political troubles the Armenians have maintained the profession of Christianity, and their church is governed by patriarchs, not subject to Rome. Since 1715 an ArmeArles (Arelatum, from the Celtic Ar-lait, near the nian convent has existed at Venice, where books on all waters), S. France (said to have been founded 2000 B.C.), | subjects are printed in the Armenian language. Arklow (in Wicklow), where a battle was fought between the insurgent Irish, amounting to 31,000, and a small regular force of British, which signally defeated them, 10 June, 1798. The town was nearly destroyed by the insurgents in May previous.-Native gold was discovered in Arklow in Sept. 1795. - Phil. Trans. vol. 86. 186 165 Becomes king of Syria, and assumes the title of King of Kings". Defeated by Lucullus, 69; he lays his crown at the feet of Pompey.. His son, Artavasdes, reigns, 54; he assists Pompey against Julius Cæsar, 48; and the Parthians against Marc Antony.. Antony subdues, and sends him loaded with silver chains Artaxias, his son, made king by the Parthians... .A.D Reconquered by Germanicus, grandson of Augustus.. 95 83 66 36 Armor Plates, see Iron and Navy of England. Armorial Bearings became hereditary in families at the close of the twelfth century. They were employed by the Crusaders, 1100. The lines to denote colors in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by Columbière in 1639. The armorial bearings of the English sovereigns are given under the article England. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798, and again in 1808. 34 The tax produced 64,5157. in the year ending 31 March, 20 1868; 1872, 64,2287.; 1876, 83,5277.; 1878, 83,104/.; 1879. 15 81,8547. The tax is now 21. 2s.; if not on carriages, it is 17. 18. annually (1880). Sir Bernard Burke's "General Armory," 1878, contains the arms of above 65,000 British families. 33 18 58 115 mans.. The Parthian conquerors of Armenia are expelled by Trajan.. Severus makes Volagarses king of part of Armenia Armenia added to the Persian empire. 298 1393 443 ..577-687 And by the Greek emperors and Mahometans..... ..693-1065 The Armenian church reconciled to Rome.. ...about 1330 Leon VI., last king of Armenia, taken prisoner by the Saracens, 1375; released, he dies at Paris. Overrun by the Mongols, 1235; by Timour, 1383; by the Turks, 1516; by the Persians, 1534; by the Turks... Shah Abbas of Persia surrenders Armenia to the Turks, but transports 22,000 Armenian families into his own states... Armenia overrun by the Russians. Surrender of Erzeroum. (See Syria and Russo-Turkish Wars, I. and II.) By the Berlin Treaty, Kars, Ardahan, and Batoum were ceded to Russia, with other changes... ........July, 1878 Armenian Era commenced on 9 July, 552; the ecclesiastical year on 11 Aug. To reduce this last to our time, add 551 years and 221 days; and in leap-years subtract one day from 1 March to 10 Aug. The Armenians used the old Julian style and months in their correspondence with Europeans. Armillary Sphere, an astronomical instrument composed of brass circles disposed in such a manner that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere may be seen in their natural position and motion. It is said to have been invented by Eratosthenes about 255 B.C., and was employed by Tycho Brahe and others. Armorica, now Brittany, N. France, was conquered by Julius Cæsar, 56 B.C. Many Gauls are said to have retired there and preserved the Celtic tongue, A.D. 584; see Brittany. Arms. The club was the first offensive weapon; then followed the mace, battle-axe, pike, spear, javelin, sword and dagger, bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the Phoenicians; see articles on the various weapons throughout the volume. Arms, see Armorial Bearings and Heraldry. Arms Bills, for the repression of crime and insurrection in Ireland, were passed 1807, 1810, 1823, 1829, and 15 Oct. 1831. The guns registered under the last act at the close of the first year scarcely amounted to 3000, and the number was equally small of all other kinds of arms. The new Arms bill, passed 22 Aug. 1843, has been since renewed, but was not rigidly enforced till 1867. Another Arms bill has been passed by the commons entitled "An act to amend the law relating to the carrying and possession of arms, and for the preservation of public peace in Ireland," to last till 1 June, 1886; royal assent, 21 March, 1881; see Ireland. Armstrong Gun, see under Cannon. Army. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of fighting-men, 2017 B.C. The first guards and regular troops as a standing army were formed by Saul, 1093 B.C.-Eusebius. The army of Xerxes invading Greece is said to have been 1,700,000 foot and 80,000 horse, 480 B.C. One of the first standing Arminians, or REMONSTRANTS, derive their former armies of which we have any account is that of Philip name from James Arminius (or Harmensen), a Protestant of Macedon. The army which Darius opposed to Alexdivine of Leyden, Holland (died 19 Oct. 1609); the lat- ander the Great (332 B.C.) is set down as between The first standing army which ter name from his followers having presented a Remon- 750,000 and a million. strance to the states-general in 1610. They separated existed as such, in modern times, was maintained in from the Calvinists, objecting to their views respecting France by Charles VII. in 1445. The chief European predestination, etc. Their doctrines were condemned in nations have had in their service the following armies: 1619 at the synod of Dort (which see); they were exiled Spain, 150,000 men; Great Britain, 310,000; Prussia, till 1625. The Calvinists were sometimes styled Go-350,000; Turkey, 450,000; Austria, 500,000; Russia, marists, from Gomar, the chief opponent to Arminius. 560,000; and France, 1,000,000. Estimated number in James I. and Charles I. favored the Arminian doctrine. Army, BRITISH, mainly arose in the reign of Charles II. in 1661, in consequence of the extinction of feudal tenures. The first five regiments of British infantry were established between 1633 and 1680. James II. established several regiments of dragoon guards (1685-8). In 1685 the army consisted of 7000 foot and 1700 cavalry. Standing armies were introduced by Charles I. in 1638: they were declared illegal in England, 31 Car. II. 1679; but one was then gradually forming, which was maintained by William III., 1689, when the Mutiny Act was passed. Grose's "History of the British Army was published in 1801; sce Regiments, Militia, and Vol unteers. BRITISH ARMY. Men. 1780, Time of war: troops of the line.. 110,000 brances. A report of a commission in 1858 causes great sanitary Sum voted. 1800, War... 168,082 1810, War: army, including foreign troops 1815, Last year of the war. 1820, Time of peace: 300,000 1830, Peace. 89,300 1840, Peace.. 93,471 1850, Peace. 1852, Peace (except Kaffir war). 1854, War with Russia.. 1855-56,† War with Russia.... 20,811,242 Royal commission on military education appointed, 23 June, 1868; report with recommendations issued about 66 Oct. 1869 29,629 £32,006,603 265,466 26,363 175,858 30,197 14,405,850 222,874 92,739 13,294,814 229,551 91,897 14,915,243 228,854 71,528 18,013,896 212,773 60,041 16,854,299 228,973 83,523 16,264,790 Royal commission on the purchase system, etc., appointed 5 April; report recognizes the "over regulation 220,918 72,676 14,723,976 payments" hitherto ignored.. 219,450 72.684 14,382,672 213,521 71,044 14,569,279 Regulations under the new "Army Enlistment Act" is...12 Aug. 203,404 65,827 14,675,540 204,455 65,292 15,418,582 2,000,000l. voted to increase the army by 20,000 men, 1 Aug. 203,157 64,466 15,000,000 Deaths in the army reduced from 17 per 1000 to 9, in 191,073 63,907 13,565,400 13,430,400 consequence of sanitary improvements, etc. (out of 175,460 men, 33,797 under 20, 18,614 under 19).-Lord Northbrook.. ...June, 1871 1856-57, War with Persia... 15,521,580 14,729,700 14,426,990 14,591,434 Army Service Acts: 12 and 13 Vict. c. 37 (21 June, 1847), Much dissatisfaction arose in that army in consequence Flogging virtually abolished in the army: First class *Supported by the Indian government. sued... Aug. 1870 Army Regulation bill (the abolition of the purchase sys Purchase system abolished by royal warrant (in pursu- etc.. Manoeuvres according to the Prussian system; field days, The duke of Cambridge's favorable report was laid be- March, Army estimates passed in commons (234-63)..12 March, Review of 14,000 men by the queen at Aldershot, 5 July, Autumn manoeuvres in Wiltshire: 50,000 men commanded by sir John Mitchell supposed to land at Weymouth, and march towards London, opposed by sir R. Walpole; campaign begins; skirmishes near Blandford..21 Aug. Sir A. Horsford repulses gen. Brownrigg at Winchampton... .....27 Aug. Prince of Wales arrives at Salisbury.. ...3 Sept. Battle of Wishford, 7 Sept.; battle of the Avon, 10 Sept.; grand march past near Beacon Hill... ...12 Sept. The new drill and tactics for the army were published 23 Nov. 66 Mr. Cardwell's estimates; proposes increasing pay of soldiers; and establishment of a chief of the staff. 24 Feb. 1873 Review of troops at Windsor, before the Shah..24 June, Autumn manœuvres at Dartmoor, Cannock Chase, and at the Curragh, Dublin... .July, Aug. Royal Commission on compensation to officers for changes; appointed.. ..11 Oct. Report issued (admits cause for compensation; and considers that officers will be satisfied with whatever the nation chooses to decide for them)... ..June, 1874 Change of ministry; Mr. Gathorne Hardy (afterwards Lord Cranbrook), secretary for war.... .21 Feb. 66 The victorious troops from Ashantee reviewed by the queen... .30 March, ..June, Royal commission on more rapid promotion; gazetted 10 Nov. Manoeuvres at Aldershot..... ...July, 1875 |