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Mineralogy AND Mines.

Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold and silver as among the products of Britain. The earliest instance of a claim to a mine royal being enforced occurs 47 Hen. III. 1262. It related to mines containing gold, together with copper, in Devonshire. In Edward I.'s reign, according to Mr. Ruding, the mines in Ireland, which produced silver, were supposed to be so rich that the king directed a writ for working them to Robert de Ufford, lord justice, 1276. The lead-mines of Cardiganshire, from which silver has ever since been extracted, were discovered by sir Hugh Middleton in the reign of James I.; see Coal, and the

various metals.

The study of mineralogy was advanced by Becker,
Kircher, and Woodward in the seventeenth century.
A British Mineralogical Society established in..
Hauy's Traité de Minéralogie" appeared in..
Mining Journal established.

.29 Aug.

The government School of Mines, etc., Jermyn street, St.
James's, opened in....

1800

1801

1835

Nov. 1851
1860

An act for the regulation of mines passed in..
A Miners' Protection Association proposed by Mr. Will-
iam Gurney and others in..
.March, 1862
Value of the total mineral produce of the United King-
dom estimated at 29,155,701. in 1854; 31,680,5814. in
1859; 40,310,9317. in 1865; 40,345,9457. in 1866; 41,521-
7057. in 1868; 46,094,6007. in 1870; 69,041,1587. in 1873;
64,421,3227. in 1879.

James D. Dana's "System of Mineralogy," 5th edition, 1868
Miners' conference, for amelioration of their condition,
held at Merthyr-Tydvil; well conducted; Mr. Halliday
president....
.Oct. 1871
Metalliferous Mines Regulation act passed......10 Aug. 1872
The Amalgamated Association of Miners, begun in Lan-
cashire about 1869, held a conference at Newport, 1872;
at Bristol...
.8 Oct. 1873
Mineralogical Society of Great Britain held first meeting
in London, 3 Feb. 1876; fourth..
22 Aug. 1879
Another society termed itself h, k, l, Miller's symbol
for the face of a crystal..

A miners' national conference on wages; opened at Bir-
mingham..

Minerva, see Athens and Parthenon.

1876

.20 April, 1881

Minié Rifle, invented at Vincennes, about 1833, by M. Minié (born 1810). From a common soldier he raised himself to the rank of chef d'escadron. His rifle, considered to surpass all made previous to it, was adopt ed by the French, and, with modifications, by the British, 1852; see Fire-arms.

Minims (from minimi, the least), an order of monks, founded by San Francisco di Paolo, in Calabria, received their name, as professing themselves inferior to the Minorites (from minor, less); see Franciscans. St. Francis died in France in 1507, where he had established houses of his order.

Minister of War, see War Minister.
Ministers, see Administrations.

to the British by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713.
It was
retaken by the Spanish and French in July, 1756, and
admiral Byng fell a victim to public indignation for not
relieving it; see Byng. It was restored to the British
at the peace in 1763; taken 5 Feb. 1782; again captured
by the British under gen. Stuart, without the loss of a
man, 15 Nov. 1798; given up at the peace of Amiens, 25
March, 1802.

Minorities. In the new Reform bill, passed 15 Aug. 1867, provision was made for the representation of minorities in constituencies with three members by limiting each elector to two votes. It was introduced as an amendment by lord Cairns, in the lords, 30 July, and accepted by the commons, Aug. 1867. The principle was adopted in a new constitution by the state of Illinois, U. S., July, 1870.

Minster, or MONASTERIUM, a place occupied by monks; see Westminster and York.

Minstrels, originally pipers appointed by lords of manors to divert their copyholders while at work, owed their origin to the gleemen or harpers of the Saxons, and continued till about 1560. John of Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 1380. So late as the reign of Henry VIII. they intruded without ceremony into all companies, even at the houses of the nobility; but in Elizabeth's reign they were adjudged rogues and vagabonds (1597).

Mint. Athelstan enacted regulations for the government of the mint about 928. There were several provincial mints under the control of that of London. Henry I. is said to have instituted a mint at Winchester, 1125. Stow says the mint was kept by Italians, the English being ignorant of the art of coining, 7 Edw. I. 1278. The operators were formed into a corporation by the charter of king Edward III., in which condition it consisted of the warden, master, comptroller, assay-masof gold brought to the mint for coinage occurs in 18 ter, workers, coiners, and subordinates. The first entry Edw. III. 1343. Tin was coined by Charles II. 1684; his abdication. Sir Isaac Newton was warden, 1699– and gun-metal and pewter by his successor, James, after 1727, during which time the debased coin was called in,

and new issued at the loss of the government. Between 1806 and 1810, grants amounting to 262,000l. were made by parliament for the erection of the present mint, which was completed in 1810; it was injured by fire 31 Oct. 1815. The new constitution of the mint, founded on the report of the hon. Wellesley Pole, took effect in 1817. Prof. Thomas Graham, the master of the mint, died 16 Sept. 1869. By the Coinage act, passed 4 April, 1870, the office was combined with that of the chancellor of the exchequer, the duties being transferred to the deputy

Ministers, in Scotland: church patronage was abol- master (Mr. C. W. Freemantle), see Coinage.

ished in 1874.

MASTERS OF THE MINT.

1817. Wellesley Pole.

1830. Lord Auckland.
1834. James Abercrombie.
1835. Alexander Baring.

Minnesingers, lyric German poets of the twelfth 1823. Thomas Wallace. and thirteenth centuries, who sang of love and war to 1827. George Tierney entertain knights and barons of the time.-The Meister-1828. J. C. Herries. singers, their successors, an incorporated fraternity in the fourteenth century, composed satirical ballads for the amusement of the citizens and lower classes. Hans Sachs, a shoemaker (1494-1576), a poet of the Reformation, was for a time their dean. His works were published at Nuremberg, 1560. "Owleglass" and "Reynard the Fox" are attributed to the Meistersingers.

Minnesota, a western state of the United States, was organized as a territory, 3 March, 1849, and admitted into the Union in 1857. On 17 Aug. 1862, the Sioux Indians commenced a series of outrages at Acton, desolating the country and massacring above 500 persons, of both sexes and of all ages. Gen. Sibley beat the Indians in two battles and rescued many captives. Thirtyeight Indians were executed as assassins.

Minorca and Majorca, the Balearic Isles (which see). Port Mahon in Minorca was captured by lieut.gen. Stanhope and sir John Leake in 1708, and was ceded

1835. Henry Labouchere.
1841. William E. Gladstone.
1845. Sir George Clerk.
1846. Richard L. Sheil.
1850. Sir John F. Herschel,
FR.S.

1855. Thomas Graham, F R.S.

Mint OF THE UNITED STATES was established by act of congress in April, 1792, and began to coin money the next year. The total coinage of the United States mint from its establishment to 1881, inclusive, has been: Gold...

Silver
Minor coins.

(See Coinage.)

.....

$1,211,837, 186.00 319,983,403.65 13,688,277.00

Minuet, a French dance, said to have been first danced by Louis XIV., 1653.

Minus, see Plus.

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of silver were introduced by Praxiteles, 328 B.C. Mirrors siege. Here Lord Byron died, 19 April, 1824. It was or looking-glasses were made at Venice, A.D. 1300; and surrendered to the Greeks in 1829. in England, at Lambeth, near London, in 1673. The improvements in manufacturing plate-glass, and that of very large size, have cheapened looking-glasses very much. Various methods of coating glass by a solution of silver, thus avoiding the use of mercury, so injurious to the health of the workmen, have been made known; by M. Petitjean in 1851; by M. Cimeg in 1861, and by Liebig and others.

Mischna, see Talmud.

Miserere (Psalm li.), sung at Rome in the "Tenebra," the service in Holy or Passion Week, in a peculiarly effective manner, to old music. One arrangement is by Costanzo Festa, dated 1517.

Missal, or MASS-BOOK, the Romanist ritual compiled by pope Gelasius I., 492-6; revised by Gregory I., 590 604. Various missals were in use till the Roman missal was adopted by the council of Trent, 1545-63. The missal was superseded in England by the Book of Common Prayer, 1549.

Missouri, one of the United States. Was a part of the vast territory of Louisiana, and included in its purchase from the French in 1803. St. Louis settled by the French in 1764. Only a sort of trading-post until 1804, when the territorial government was formed. Admitted into the Union in 1821. It decided on neutrality in the conflict of 1861, but was invaded by both the confederate and federal forces in June of that year, and became one of the seats of war. Population, 1880, 2,168,804. Capital, Jefferson City.

Missouri Compromise. During the session of congress in 1818-19, a bill was introduced into congress which contained a provision forbidding the introduction of slavery or involuntary servitude into the new state of Missouri, when admitted. This brought out violent debates upon the subject of slavery. The whole country was greatly agitated by it. Finally a compromise was effected (28 Feb. 1821) by an agreement that slavery should be allowed in Missouri, and in all territory west of it, south of 36° 30′ N. lat., and prohibited in all terMissionary Bishops, see under Bishops. ritory north of this line. This act was virtually reMissionary Ridge (Tennessee), BATTLE AT, 25 pealed in 1854 by the act erecting the territories of NeNov. 1863; see Chattanooga.

Missions,* see Mark xvi. 15. Among the Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominic, St. Francis, St. Augustin, etc., have missions to the Levant and to America. Marco Polo is said to have introduced missionaries into China, 1275. The Jesuits have missions to China (which see) and to most other parts of the world. Among the Protestants, an early undertaking of this kind was a Danish mission, planned by Frederick IV. in 1706. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts was established 1701, and the Moravian Brethren encouraged missions about 1732. The London Missionary Society held their first meeting, 4 Nov. 1794. Most Christian sects now support missions. British Contributions to Foreign Missions: 1871, 855,742.; 1877, 1,100,7937. (in 1871-7, 6,977,5867.).

Commander Allan Gardner, R. N., who left England in the Ocean Queen in Sept. 1850, on the Patagonian mission, with Mr. Williams, surgeon, Mr. Maidment, catechist, and four others, died on Picton Island, at the mouth of the Beagle Channel, to the south of Tierra del Fuego, having been starved to death; all his companions having previously perished, 6 Sept. 1851.

M Schoffler, a missionary to Cochin China, was publicly executed at Son Tay, by order of the grand mandarin, for preaching Christianity, such preaching being prohibited by the law of that country, 4 May, 1851.

braska and Kansas.

"Mistletoe," see Wrecks.

Mithridate, a medical preparation in the form of an electuary, supposed to be an antidote to poison, and the oldest compound known, is said to have been invented by Mithridates, king of Pontus, about 70 B.C.

Mithridatic War, caused by the massacre of 80,000 Romans by Mithridates VI., king of Pontus, 88 B.C., and remarkable for its duration, its many sanguinary battles, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates having taken the consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great part of Asia, crying out as he rode, "I am Aquilius, consul of the Romans." He is said to have killed him by causing melted gold to be poured down his throat, in derision of his avarice, 85 B.C. Mithridates was defeated by Pompey, 66 B.C.; and committed suicide, 63 B.C.

Mitrailleuse, or MITRAILLEUR, a machine-gun in which 37 or more large-bored rifles are combined with breech-action, by means of which a shower of bullets may be rapidly projected by one man. It was invented in Belgium, and adopted by the French emperor soon after the Prusso-Austrian war in 1866, and was much used in the Franco-Prussian war in 1870. Its peculiar "dry, shrieking, terrible sound" was described in the bombardment of Saarbrück, 2 Aug. 1870. Modifications of the mitrailleuse have been made by Montigny and others. The Fosbery mitrailleuse was tried and approved at Shoeburyness, 11 Aug. 1870. It is mentioned in Grose's Military Antiquities (1801) that in England, in 1625, a patent was granted to William Drummond for a machine Mississippi, one of the United States. First set- composed of a number of muskets joined together, by the tled by the French at Natchez, and claimed as a part of help of which two soldiers can oppose a hundred, and Louisiana, 1716. Colony attacked by the Natchez In-named, on account of its effect, "thunder carriage," or, dians. Indians almost annihilated by the French in

Mississippi, a great river, North America, explored by De Soto about 1541. The Mississippi trade was begun in England, in Nov. 1716. Law's Mississippi scheme in France, commenced about the same period, exploded in 1720; at which time the nominal capital is said to have amounted to 100,000,0007. The ruin of thousands soon followed; see Law's Bubble.

1730. Ceded to Great Britain in 1763. Erected into a territory (including Alabama) in 1812. Admitted into the Union in 1817. Adopted ordinance of secession 9 Jan. 1861. Ordinance repealed by constitutional convention, 21 Aug. 1865. Readmitted to the Union by act of congress, 23 Feb. 1870. Population, 1880, 1,131,592. Capital, Jackson.

Missolonghi, a town in Greece, taken from the Turks, 1 Nov. 1821, and heroically and successfully defended against the Turks by Marco Bozzaris, Oct. 1822 27 Jan. 1823. It was taken 22 April, 1826, after a long

*MISSIONS, "a series of sermons, generally by a 'mis. sioner,' or special preacher, often followed by confessions and communions" (a species of revivalism), were authorized in the metropolis by the bishops of London, Winchester, and Rochester, held 1869 and since.

more usually, "fire carriage." An English mitrailleuse, a modification of the American Gatling, containing 50 cartridges, was tried at Woolwich, 18 Jan. 1872; 50 of them were ordered to be made by Armstrong.

Mitre. The cleft cap or mitre was worn by the Jewish high-priest, 1491 B.C. It had on it a golden plate inscribed "HOLINESS TO THE LORD" (Exod. xxxix. 28.). The most ancient mitre that has the nearest resemblance to the present one is that upon the seal of the bishop of Laon, in the tenth century.-Fosbroke. Anciently the cardinals wore mitres; but at the council of Lyons, in 1245, they were directed to wear hats.

Mitylene, or LESBOS, Ægean Sea. Near here the Greeks defeated and nearly destroyed the Turkish fleet, 7 Oct. 1824.

Mnemonics, artificial memory, was introduced by Simonides the younger, 477 B.C.-Arundelian Marbles.

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"Mnemonica' was published by John Willis in 1618; | with the voting by universal suffrage, was annexed to and the "Memoria Technica" of Dr. Grey first appeared Sardinia on 18 March, 1860. Population in 1857, in 1730. A system of mnemonics was announced in 604,512. Germany in 1806-7; and others since.

GRAND-DUKES.

1814. Francis IV. An invasion of his states by Murat was defeated 11 April, 1815. He was expelled by his subjects in 1831, but was restored by the Austrians. Francis V. (born 1 June, 1819) succeeded 21 Jan. His subjects rose against him soon after the Italian war broke out, in April, 1859. He fled to Verona, established a regency 11 June, which was abolished 13 June; Farina was appointed dictator, 27 July; a constituent assembly was immediately elected, which offered the duchy to the king of Sardinia, 15 Sept., who incorporated it with his dominions, 18 March, 1860. Francis died 20 Nov. 1875.

Moabites, descendants of Lot, a people living to the southeast of Judæa. They were frequently at war with the Israelites, and were subdued with divine help 1846. by Ehud about 1336, by David about 1040, and by Jehoshaphat, 895 B.C., but often harassed the Jews in the decay of their monarchy. The discovery of a stone with inscription in Phoenician characters, said to relate to Mesha, king of Moab, referred to in 2 Kings iii., was announced in Jan. 1870, and impressions were exhibited soon after, which caused much discussion among Orientalists.

Mobile, Alabama. The city is situated at the southwest corner of the state, at the mouth of Mobile river, and with a harbor on the Gulf. After the capture of Vicksburg in 1863, an attack on this city was contemplated, but was given up, the Red river campaign being strongly urged by the United States government. Admiral Farragut attacked Forts Morgan and Gaines, 5 Aug. 1864. On that day Fort Powell was blown up; on the 8th, Fort Gaines was surrendered with its garrison, and Fort Morgan was occupied on the 23d. After passing the forts on the 5th, Farragut captured the confederate ram Tennessee. The result of this brief naval campaign was the possession of Mobile bay by the national forces. After Hood's defeat at Nashville (Dec. 1864), military operations against Mobile were commenced. On 25 March, gen. Canby had the 13th and 16th corps (under Gordon Granger and A. J. Smith) at Danley's, on Fish river, east of Mobile. The siege of Spanish Fort was commenced on the 27th. A week before this, gen. Steele, with an army which he had landed at Pensacola, marched northward against Montgomery, and, returning near the close of the month, joined the besieging army around Mobile. Spanish Fort was evacuated by the confederates on 8 April, and occupied by the national troops. The next day Fort Blakely was assaulted and captured, and Mobile was evacuated (11, 12 April). This was the last campaign of the civil war. Gen. Richard Taylor surrendered on 4 May. The population of Mobile decreased from 32,034 in 1870 to 31,205 in 1880. Mobile and Memphis are the only American cities which did not increase in population during that decade.

Möckern (Prussia). Here the French army under Eugène Beauharnais was defeated by the Prussians under Yorck, 5 April, 1813; and here Blucher defeated the French, 16 Oct. 1813.

Models. The first were figures of living persons, and Dibutades, the Corinthian, is the reputed inventor of those in clay. His daughter, being about to be separated from her lover, traced his profile by his shadow on the wall; her father filled up the outline with clay, which he afterwards baked, and thus produced a figure of the object of her affection, giving rise to an art till

then unknown, about 985 B.C.

A beautiful model of the new town of Edinburgh, before the building began, was formed in wood.

A model was made of a bridge over the Neva, of uncommon strength as well as elegance; and of the mountains of Switzerland, by general Pfiffer (1766-85).

M. Choffin's model of Paris also was remarkable for its precision.

Fine models of Gibraltar, Quebec, and other fortified places are deposited in the Rotunda at Woolwich.

Modena (formerly Mutina), capital of the late duchy in Central Italy, was governed by the house of Este from 1288 till 1796, when the last male of that house, the reigning duke Hercules III., was expelled by the French. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the Modenese possessions were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797, and with the kingdom of Italy, 1805. The archduke Francis of Este, son of the archduke Ferdinand of Austria, and of Mary, the heiress of the last duke, was restored in 1814. Modena, in accordance

Moderados. A political party in Spain, long headed by Ramon Maria Narvaez, duke of Valencia (who died 23 April, 1868), who opposed the Progresistas, headed by Espartero and Prim. The party was reinforced by the favorers of Don Carlos, after his total defeat in 1876.

Modoc Indians (a few hundreds), dwelling in lands south of Oregon, were removed to other lands by the United States government. Not obtaining subsistence, they returned to their old possessions, and their able leader, captain Jack, defeated the troops sent to expel them, 17 Jan. 1873. During negotiations for a peaceful settlement, they decoyed the United States commissioners into an ambush (11 April), and massacred general Canby and commissioner Thomas. Fighting took place, 15, 16 April, and the Indians retreated to almost impregnable positions. The troops were fired on, and suffered much loss, 27 April. The Indians were gradually surrounded. Jack and about twenty warriors held out desperately. Some surrendered, and he himself was captured, 1 June; tried, July, and executed 3 Oct. 1873. Moesia (now Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria) was It was successfinally subdued by Augustus, 29 B.C. fully invaded by the Goths, A.D. 250, who eventually settled here; see Goths.

Moguls, see Tartary.

Mohacz (Lower Hungary). Here Louis, king of Hungary, defeated by the Turks under Solyman II. with the loss of 22,000 men, was suffocated by the fall of his horse in a muddy brook, 29 Aug. 1526. Here also prince Charles of Lorraine defeated the Turks, 12 Aug. 1687.

Mohammerah, a Persian town near the Euphrates, captured, after two hours' cannonading, by sir James Outram, during the Persian war, 26 March, 1857. News of the peace arrived 4 April.

Mohilow (Russia). Here the Russian army, under prince Bagration, was signally defeated by the French under Marshal Davoust, prince of Eckmühl, 23 July,

1812.

Mohocks, ruffians who went about London at night wounding and disfiguring the men and indecently exposing the women. One hundred pounds were offered by royal proclamation in 1712 for apprehending any

one of them.-Northouck.

Mohurrum, a Mahometan festival in honor of the prophet's nephews: at its celebration in Bombay, Feb. 1874, the Mahometans fiercely attacked the Parsees, and were quelled by the military.

Moldavia, see Danubian Principalities.

Molinists, a Roman Catholic sect, followers of Louis Molina, a Jesuit, born 1535. He maintained the reconcilability of the doctrines of predestination and freewill, 1588.

Molly Maguire, a secret society in mining districts, United States (which see), 1877.

Molokani, a sect in West Russia, said to date from doctrines and practices; well described by Mr. D. Macthe sixteenth century, who maintain primitive Christian kenzie Wallace in his "Russia," published 1877.

Moluccas, an archipelago in the Indian Ocean (the

chief island Amboyna), discovered by the Portuguese | pasteboard by the Hollanders so late as 1574; see Coin, about 1511, and held by them secretly until the arrival Gold, Copper, Mint, Banks, etc. For Money-orders, of the Spaniards, who claimed them, till 1529, when Charles V. yielded them to John III. for a large sum of money. The Dutch conquered them in 1607, and have held them ever since-except from 1810 to 1814, when they were subject to the English.

Molwitz (in Prussian Silesia). Here the Prussians, commanded by Frederick II., obtained a great victory over the imperialists, 10 April (o. s. 30 March), 1741. Molybdenum, a whitish, brittle, almost infusible metal. Scheele, in 1778, discovered molybdic acid in a mineral hitherto confounded with graphite. Hjelm, 1782, prepared the metal from molybdic acid; and in 1825 Berzelius described most of its chemical characters. -Gmelin.

*

Monachism (from the Greek μóvoç, alone). Catholic writers refer to the prophet Elijah, and the Nazarites mentioned in Numb. vi., as early examples. The first Christian ascetics appear to be derived from the Jewish sect of the Essenes, whose life was very austere, practising celibacy, etc. About the time of Constantine (306-22) numbers of these ascetics withdrew into the deserts, and were called hermits, monks, and anchorets, of whom Paul, Anthony, and Pachomius were most celebrated. Simeon, the founder of the Stylitæ (or pillar saints), died 451. He is said to have lived on a pillar thirty years. St. Benedict, the great reformer of western monachism, published his rules and established his monastery at Monte Casino, about 529. The Carthusians, Cistercians, etc., are varieties of Benedictines. In 964, by decree of king Edgar, all married priests-were ineffectually ordered to be replaced by monks. Religious orders expelled from France, by decree, 29 March, 1880. See Abbeys and Benedictines.

Monaco, a principality, N. Italy, held by the Genoese family Grimaldi since 968. By treaty on 2 Feb. 1861, the prince ceded the communes of Roquebrune and Mentone, the chief part of his dominions, to France for 4,000,000 francs. The present prince, Charles III., born 8 Dec. 1818, succeeded his father, Florestan, 20 June, 1856. Heir: Albert, born 13 Nov. 1848. A commercial convention between the prince and France, signed 9 Nov. 1865, was much discussed as tending towards the abolition of the French navigation laws. Population, 1878, 7049. Petitions against Monte Carlo, the great gaming establishment, Dec. 1880.

Monarchy. Historians reckon various grand monarchies the Chaldæan, Assyrian, Babylonian, Median, Persian, Grecian, Parthian, and Roman (which see).

Monasteries, see Abbeys.

Moncontour (near Poitiers, France). Here the admiral Coligny and the French Protestants were defeated with great loss by the duke of Anjou (afterwards Henry III.), 3 Oct. 1569.

Moncrieff System, see Cannon.

Monday Concerts, see under Music.

see Post-office. The czar Nicholas struck coins in platinum. A monetary conference was held at Paris (during the international exhibition), Aug. 1878.

Moneyers travelled with our early kings, and coined money as required; see Mint. Mongols, see Tartary.

Moniteur Universel, a French newspaper, was established in Paris by C. J. Panckoucke, 5 May, 1789; daily paper, 24 Nov. 1789; the organ of the government, 28 Dec. 1799. It was superseded by the Journal Officiel, 1 Jan. 1869; resumed its official position about 23 Sept. 1870; and was again superseded by the Journal Officiel, Feb. 1871. It became the organ of MacMahon's govern

ment in 1875.

Monitor Ships, see United States. The American monitor Miantonomah arrived at Plymouth in June, 1866, and excited much attention.

pupils are employed as teachers, was used by Dr. Bell Monitorial System (in education), in which in the Orphan Asylum at Madras in 1795, and was also adopted by Joseph Lancaster in Loudon; see Education. Monk, see Monachism.

Monmouth, BATTLE OF. Sir Henry Clinton, at the head of the British army, left Philadelphia for New York on 18 June, 1778, with 11,000 men and an immense baggage and provision train. Washington pursued him, harassed him much in New Jersey, and engaged in battle with him near Monmouth Court-house on 28 June, 1778. The battle lasted all day. It was exceedingly sultry weather, and more than 50 American soldiers died of exhaustion. Night closed the conflict. Both armies slept upon their arms until towards midnight, when Clinton, with his whole force, stole off in the dark, to avoid another engagement in the morning, and escaped, leaving a large number of sick and wounded behind. The Americans lost 228 of their men; less than 70 were killed. The British left about 300 dead on the field.

Monmouth's Rebellion. James, duke of Monmouth (born at Rotterdam, 9 April, 1649), a natural son of Charles II. by Lucy Waters, was banished England for his connection with the Rye-house plot, in 1683. He invaded England at Lyme, 11 June, 1685; was proclaimed king at Taunton, 20 June; was defeated at Sedgmoor, near Bridgewater, 6 July; and beheaded on Tower hill, 15 July.

Monochord, a box of thin wood, with a bridge, over which is stretched a wire or chord, said to have been invented by Pythagoras, about 600 B.C.

Monolith, Greek for "single stone;" see Obelisk. Monophysites, see Eutychians.

Monopolies were formerly so numerous in England that parliament petitioned against them, and many were abolished, about 1601-2. They were further suppressed by 21 Jas. I. 1624. Sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchell were punished for their abuse of Mondovi (Piedmont). Here the Sardinian army, monopolies, 1621. In 1630, Charles I. established monopcommanded by Colli, was defeated by Napoleon Bona-olies of soap, salt, leather, and other common things, to parte, 22 April, 1796.

supply a revenue without the help of parliament. It Monetary Conferences. INTERNATIONAL, open- was decreed that none should be in future created by ed at Paris, 16 Aug. 1878; and 19 April, 1881.

Money is mentioned as a medium of commerce in Gen. xxiii., 1860 B.C., when Abraham purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah. The coinage of money is ascribed to the Lydians. Moneta was the name given to their silver by the Romans, it having been coined in the temple of Juno Moneta, 269 B.C. Money was made of different metals, and even of leather and other articles, both in ancient and modern times. It was made of

*The anchorites of the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries must not be confounded with the anachorets and anchorets, or hermits. The former were confined to solitary cells; the latter permitted to go where they pleased.

royal patent, 16 Chas. I. 1640.

Monothelites, heretics who affirmed that Jesus Christ had but one will, were favored by the emperor Heraclius, 630; they merged into the Eutychians (which see).

Monroe Doctrine, a term applied to the determination expressed by James Monroe, president of the United States, in his message to the congress, 2 Dec. 1823, not to permit any European power to interfere with the concerns of any independent states of North or South America, or to acquire dominion on the continent. This doctrine was referred to in 1859, with the view of weakening the influence of Great Britain and Spain on

the American continent, and, in 1865, in relation to the

new Mexican empire. The scheme of M. de Lesseps for cutting a canal across the isthmus of Panama, and securing its neutrality by a joint international guaranty, led to much discussion of the Monroe doctrine in 1879, '80, and '81. The doctrine has been repeatedly reaffirmed as the settled policy of the people and government of the United States. It has been emphasized, 1881, in state papers by Mr. Blaine, secretary of state under president Garfield.

Mont Blanc, in the Swiss Alps, is the highest mountain in Europe, being 15,781 feet above the level of the sea. The summit was first reached by Saussure, aided by a guide named Balma, on 2 Aug. 1787. The summit was attained by Dr. Hamel (when three of his guides perished) in 1820, and by many other persons before and since. Accounts of the ascents of Mr. John Auldjo, Charles Fellows (1827), and of professor Tyndall (1857-8), have been published; see Alps. 57 ascents reported in 1873.

Mont Cenis, see Alps.

Montalembert's Trial, see France, 1858. Montanists, followers of Montanus of Ardaba, in Mysia, about 171, who was reputed to have the gift of prophecy, and proclaimed himself the Comforter promised by Christ. He condemned second marriages as fornication, permitted the dissolution of marriage, forbade avoiding martyrdom, and ordered a severe fast of three lents; he hanged himself with Maximilla, one of his female scholars, before the close of the second century.-Cave. The eloquent father Tertullian joined the sect, 204.

Monte Carlo, see Monaco.

Monte Casino (Central Italy). Here Benedict formed his first monastery, 529. After affording a refuge for many eminent persons, its monastic character was abolished by the Italian government in 1866, care being taken for the preservation of its historical and literary monuments.

Montebello, in Piedmont, where Lannes defeated the Austrians, 9 June, 1800, and acquired his title of duke of Montebello; and where, after a contest, of six hours, the French and Sardinians defeated the Austrians, who lost about 1000 killed and wounded, and 200 prisoners, 20 May, 1859. The French lost about 670 men, including gen. Beuret.

Montem, see Eton.

Montenegro, an independent principality in European Turkey, was conquered by Solyman II. in 1526. It rebelled early in the eighteenth century, and established an hereditary hierarchical government in the family of Petrovitsch Njegosch-permitted, but not recognized, by the Porte. Its independence was declared by the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 1878. Population, in 1877, about 170,000. Capital, Céttinjé.

1852

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The nephew and successor of the Vladika, Peter II., declined to assume the ecclesiastical function, and declared himself a temporal prince, with the title of Daniel I., 1851; and began war with Turkey.. Montenegro put in a state of blockade............ .14 Dec. After indecisive encounters, tranquillity restored by the influence of the arms and negotiations of Omar Pacha, the general of the Turkish army; he left the province, 25 Feb. 1853 Blockade raised.. .10 April, War again broke out; the Turks defeated at Grahovo, June; peace restored.. The country much disturbed through the tyrannical conduct of prince Daniel, who was assassinated (aged 35), 13 Aug. 1860 Succeeded by his nephew Nicolas, or Nikita (married), 64 8 Nov. An insurrection in the Herzegovina, favored by the Montenegrins; the blockade of Montenegro ...4 April, 1861 Omar Pacha invaded the province with an army of 32,000 men in... ..Aug. Many conflicts, with various success, but latterly in favor of the Turks; peace made, Turkish supremacy recognized..... .8,9 Sept. 1862 Murderous quarrels between Christians and Mussulmans

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at Podgoritza; 21 Montenegrins said to be killed by Turks.. Threatened war prevented by intervention of the great .20 Oct. 1874 powers; each nation to punish culprits. .Jan. 1875 Some rioters executed.. .....15 May, Montenegro with difficulty restrained from intervention in Herzegovina... .autumn and winter, The prince declared war and joined the Servians, 2 July, 1876 (See Turkey and Russo-Turkish War, 1876–8.) Declared independent of Turkey by treaty of San Stefano, 3 March; (with new boundaries, and Antivari for a seaport) by the Berlin treaty.. ....13 July, 1878 Podgoritza surrendered by Turkey.. 7 Feb. 1879 After much resistance by the Albanians, and negotiation with Turkey, Gussinge surrendered. ..April, 1880

PRINCES.

1851. Daniel, born 25 May, 1826; assassinated, 13 Aug. 1860. 1860. Nicolas, or Nikita (nephew), born 7 Oct. 1841; married

princess Milena, 8 Nov. 1860.

Heir: Danilo, born 30 June, 1871.

Montenotte, a village in Piedmont, memorable as being the site of the first victory gained over the Austrians by Napoleon Bonaparte, 12 April, 1796.

Montereau (near Paris). On the bridge of Montereau, at his meeting with the dauphin, John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, was killed by Tanneguy de Châtel in 1419. This event led to our Henry V. subduing France, the young duke Philip joining the English. Here the allied armies were defeated by the French, commanded by Napoleon, with great loss in killed and wounded; but it was one of his last triumphs, 18 Feb. 1814.

Monterey (Mexico), was taken by gen. Taylor after a three days' conflict with the Mexicans, 21-24 Sept. 1846.

Montevideo (South America) was taken by storm by the British forces under sir Samuel Auchmuty, but with the loss of nearly one third of our brave troops, 3 Feb. 1807. It was evacuated 7 July the same year, in consequence of the severe repulse the British met with at Buenos Ayres; see Buenos Ayres. Montevideo, a subject of dispute between Brazil and Buenos Ayres, was given up to Uruguay, 1828. For recent war, see Brazil and Uruguay.

Montferrat (Lombardy), HOUSE OF, celebrated in the history of the Crusades, began with Alderan, who was made marquess of Montferrat, by Otho, about 967. Conrad of Montferrat became lord of Tyre, and reigned from 1187 till 1191, when he was assassinated. William IV. died in a cage at Alexandria, having been thus imprisoned nineteen months, 1292. Violante, daughter of John II., married Andronicus Palæologus, emperor of the East. Their descendants ruled in Italy amid perpetual without issue. His estates passed, after much contencontests till 1533, when John George Palæologus died tion, to Frederick II., Gonzaga, marquess of Mantua, in 1536, and next to the duke of Savoy.

Montgomery, capital of Alabama, U. S., founded 1817. Here the state convention passed the ordinance of secession from the Union on 11 Jan. 1861; here the confederate congress met on 4 Feb. and elected Jefferson Davis president, and Alexander H. Stephens vice-president, of the Confederate States of North America; and here they were inaugurated on 18 Feb. On 21 May the congress adjourned to meet on 20 July at Richmond, in Virginia, that state having joined the confederates and become the seat of war.

Monti di Pietà, charitable institutions for advancing money on pledges, were first established at Perugia, Florence, Mantua, and other Italian cities, 1462 et seq. The Franciscans, in 1493, began to receive interest, which was permitted by the pope in 1515. -Monts-de-piété, established in France 1777, were suppressed by the Revolution, but restored 1804; regulated by law, 1851-2; see Pawnbroking.

Montiel (Spain), BATTLE OF, 14 March, 1369, between Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, and his brother, Henry of Trastamare, aided by the French warrior Ber

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