April et seq. ..1 July, Army OF OCCUPATION. By treaty, signed 20 Nov. 1815, the allied powers established the boundaries of France, and stipulated for the occupation of certain fortresses by foreign troops for three years. The departure of the German army of occupation from France began about 20 Sept. 1871; completed 16 Sept. 1873. cludes 1 general, 1 lieut.-general, 3 major-generals, and 6 brigadier-generals. The actual strength is very nearly the maximum allowed by law. By act of Congress, 15 Aug. 1876, the maximum strength of the army was fixed at 25,000 enlisted men. Arogee, Abyssinia. Here sir Robert (afterwards lord) Napier defeated the Abyssinians, who lost about 700 killed and wounded, 10 April, 1868. The British had 20 wounded. Aromatics. Acron of Agrigentum is said to have been the first who caused great fires to be made, and aromatics to be thrown into them, to purify the air, by which means he put a stop to the plague at Athens, 429 B.C. Arpad Dynasty, see Hungary. Arpinum (now Arpino, S. Italy), the birthplace of Cicero, 3 Jan. 106 B.C.; many remains still bear his name. Arquebus, see Fire-arms. Arques (N. France). Near here the league army, commanded by the duc de Mayenne, was defeated by Henry IV. 21 Sept. 1589. Arracan, a province of N.E. India. Arracan, the capital, captured by the Burmese, 1783, was taken from them by gen. Morrison, 1 April, 1825. The subjugation of the province followed, 1826. Arraignment consists in reading the indictment by the officer of the court, and calling upon the prisoner to say whether he is guilty or not guilty. Formerly, persons who refused to plead in cases of felony were pressed to death by weights placed upon the breast. A person standing mute was declared convicted by an act passed 1772; but in 1827 the court was directed to enter a plea of "not guilty" in such cases; see Mute. was concluded between the king of France and duke of Array. On 23 Dec. 1324, Edward II. directed the bishop of Durham to make "arraier" his men of arms, horse and foot, and cause them to proceed to Portsmouth; thence to proceed to the war in Gascony.- Rymer's Fadera. Hallam says that this was the earliest commission of array that he could find, and that the latest was dated 1557. The attempt of Charles I. to revive commissions of array in 1642, founded on a statute of Henry IV., was strenuously opposed as illegal. Arras (N.E. France), the country of the ancient Atrebates, the seat of a bishop since 390. Here a treaty Burgundy, when the latter abandoned his alliance with England, 21 Sept. 1435. Another treaty was concluded by Maximilian of Austria with Louis XI. of France, Army, UNITED STATES. The standing army of the whereby Burgundy and Artois were given to the dauUnited States may be said to have begun with the or-phin as a marriage portion, 23 Dec. 1482.-Velly. Arras ganization of the War Department, 7 Aug. 1789. The was held by the Austrians from 1493 till 1640, when it army in 1790 was 1200 strong; in 1791, 900 men were was taken by Louis XIII. added. In 1798, in view of war with France, a provisional 10,000 men was authorized, which allowed number was the next year enlarged to about 40,000 regulars and as many volunteers. Some officers were appointed and men raised; but the danger passed away, and the standing army was in 1802 fixed at about the old force. During the war of 1812 the army was increased; 25,000 regulars were voted; and in Jan. of that year, 50,000 volunteers were authorized. At the peace of 1815 the army was disbanded. In 1831 a peace establishment was organized. The Florida war lasted from 1835 to 1842, and required a force increased by regulars and militia. At the beginning of the Mexican war (May, 1846), the regular army was 7244 strong, gen. Taylor having with him in Texas 3554. During that war, 29,000 regulars were enlisted and 50,000 volunteers employed. After the war the army was reduced to its previous strength. On 15 April, 1861, the first levy against the rebellion was made by the call for 75,000 volunteers. On 3 May, 42,000 more volunteers were called out for three years or the war. On 22 July, Congress author-Vexatious arrests prevented by act, May, 1733. Prohib ized the president to call for 500,000 volunteers for any ited for less than 10. on process, 1779; and for less proper term, and on 25 another force of 500,000 was than 201.. ..July, 1827 permitted. The actual number of the United States arrivals in the field, Aug. 1862, was 1,135,416, of which the regular army was 43,014. Up to the beginning of 1863 the whole number of volunteers sent into the field By 7 & 8 Vict. c. 96, the power of imprisonment even was 1,276,246. The maximum strength of the army was fixed by the act of 28 July, 1866, at 75,382 rank and file; and by successive reductions its strength has been brought down to 2153 commissioned officers and 25,000 enlisted men. As at present organized, the army in Arrest FOR DEBT. The persons of peers, members of parliament, etc., are protected from arrest; see Ambassadors, Debt, Ferrars' Arrest. Clergymen performing divine service privileged, 50 Edw. III. 1375 Seamen privileged from debts under 20., by 30 Geo. III. 1756 tending upon, and returning from court, on the busi- By stat. 29 Car. II. no arrest can be made, nor process served, upon a Sunday; this law was extended by Will. III. Arrests for less than 10%. were prohibited on mesne proc ess in Ireland, in June. 1829 Statute abolishing arrest for debt on mesne process, ex- upon final process that is judgment debts, is abolished By the Absconding Debtors' Arrest Act, absconding debt ors owing 201, and upwards are liable to arrest........ 1851 The 37th Congress, at its second session, passed an act to establish three additional national arsenals at Columbus, O.; Indianapolis, Ind.; and Rock Island, Ill. Arsenians, partisans of Arsenius, patriarch of Constantinople, who excommunicated the emperor Michael Palæologus for blinding his colleague the young John Lascaris, 1261, and was deposed 1264. Arsenic, a steel-gray colored brittle mineral, extremely poisonous, known in early times. Brandt, in 1733, made the first accurate experiments on its chemical nature. The heinous crimes committed by its means induced the legislature to enact regulations for its sale, 1851. In 1858 Dr. A. S. Taylor asserted that green paper-hangings and dresses prepared from arsenic are injurious to health. boring through the upper soil to strata containing water which has percolated from a higher level, and which rises to that level through the boring tube. The fountains in Trafalgar Square and government offices near have been supplied since 1844 by two of these wells (393 feet deep). At Paris the Grenelle well (1798 feet deep), was completed in 1841, after eight years of exertion, by M. Mulot, at an expense of about 12,000l., and the well at Passy, which it is said will supply sufficient water for nearly 500,000 persons, was begun in 1855, and completed in 1860 by M. Kind. Messrs. Amos & Easton completed an artesian well for the Horticultural Society's garden in 1662, which yielded 880,000 gallons of water, at the temperature of 81° Fahr., in twenty-four hours. The well at Kissingen was completed in 1850. The most important artesian wells in the United States are those at St. Louis, Mo.; Charleston, S.C.; and Louisville, Ky. The St. Louis well was begun in 1849. The well is 2199 feet in depth, and yields 75 gallons of water per minute, but the water is unfit for general use. The well at Louisville is 2086 feet deep, and yields 330,000 gallons of clear, mineral water (resembling Kissingen water) daily. The well was begun April, 1857, and finished Aug. 1858. The Charleston well gave greater difficulty in construction than any other in the United States. Five attempts to bore it were made, the first in 1824. The existing well was begun in 1848. Depth of the well, 1102 feet; discharge, 1200 gallons per hour. There are many other artesian water wells in the United States, some of which are notable. Nearly all the salt and oil wells also are artesian. In 1855 the government sent out an expedition to bore artesian wells in New Mexico. Artesian wells are now common. Arthur, king of Britain, said, mythically, to have lived A.D. 500-532. The events of his life and the conflicts of the knights of ...about 1205 Sir Thomas Malory's "Morte d'Arthur," printed.. about 1171 Lord Lytton's "King Arthur," published.. 1485 1848 1859-69 Artichokes are said to have been introduced from the East into Western Europe in the fifteenth century, and to have reached England in the sixteenth. Arson, punished with death by the Saxons, still remained a capital crime on the consolidation of the laws in 1827 and 1837. By the act of 1861 it is punishable Articles oF RELIGION. On 8 June, 1536, after by penal servitude for life and minor degrees of impris- much disputing, the English clergy in convocation pubonment. William Anthony was convicted of arson, hav-lished" Articles decreed by the king's highness" Henry ing set many houses on fire, for the sake of obtaining the reward for giving alarm, 13 Dec. 1871. VIII., who published in 1539 the "Statute of Six ArtiIn some states of the Union the law remains the tion, communion in one kind, vows of chastity, private cles," decreeing the acknowledgment of transubstantiasame as in England; others make the setting fire to an inhabited house punishable by imprisonment for life. Offenders were punishable as heretics. In 1551 fortymasses, celibacy of the clergy, and auricular confession. There are various degrees of arson, and minor punish-two were prepared, and published in 1553. These were ments for minor degrees of the offence. Arsouf (Syria). At a battle here Richard I. of England, commanding the Christian forces, reduced to 30,000, defeated Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other infidels, on 6 Sept. 1191. Ascalon surrendered, and Richard marched towards Jerusalem, 1192. Art Act, facilitating the public exhibition of works of art (lent to the president of the privy council), passed April, 1866; see Arts, Exhibitions, and National Portrait Gallery. Artemis, a Greek goddess; called by the Romans Diana, which see. Artemisium, a promontory in Euboea, near which indecisive conflicts took place between the Greek and Persian fleets for three days, 480 B.C. The former re tired on hearing of the battle of Thermopyla. Artesian Wells (from Artesia, now Artois, in France, where they frequently occur) are formed by modified by the convocation, and reduced to THIRTYNINE in Jan. 1563; and they received the royal authority and the authority of parliament in 1571. The Lambeth Articles, of a more Calvinistic character, proposed by archbishop Whitgift, were withdrawn in consequence of the displeasure of queen Elizabeth, 1595. One hundred and four articles were drawn up for Ireland by archbishop Usher in 1614; but in 1635 the Irish church adopted the English articles; see Perth Articles. The 39 Articles were ordered to be removed from the studies at Oxford in Nov. 1871. Articles OF WAR were decreed in the time of Richard I. and John. Those made by Richard II. in 1385 appear in "Grose's Military Antiquities." The articles of war now in force are based upon an act, passed by William III. in 1689, to regulate the army about to engage in his continental warfare. In the United States, Congress only can make articles of war. These have been based on the English articles and Mutiny Act. They were first adopted by the Continental Congress, | his daughter Judith, on her marriage with Baldwin BrasJuly 30, 1775, and extended March 20, 1776; enacted de-fer in 863. Louis XV. created his grandson, Charles again, with little alteration, April 10, 1806. Philippe, count of Artois, who became king as Charles X., 16 Sept. 1824. Artificers AND MANUFACTURERS. Their affairs were severely regulated by the statutes of laborers, 1349, 1350, 1360, 1549, and especially of 1562. They were prohibited from leaving England, and those abroad were outlawed, if they did not return within six months after the notice given them. A fine of 100%., and imprisonment for three months, were the penalties for seducing them from these realms, by 9 Geo. II., 1736, and other statutes. The law was modified in 1824; see Artisans, Workmen, etc. Artillery, a term including properly all heavy missiles, now restricted to cannon. A small piece was contrived by Schwartz, a German cordelier, soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. Artillery was used, it is said, by the Moors of Algesiras, in Spain, in 1343; and according to some historians, at the battle of Crecy, in 1346, when Edward III. had four pieces of cannon. We had artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venetians employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377.-Voltaire. Said to have been cast, with mortars for bomb-shells, by Flemish artists, in Sussex, 1543.— Rymer's Fadera. Made of brass, 1635; improvements by Browne, 1728; see Cannon, Bombs, Carronades (under Carron), Mortars, Howitzers, Petard, Rockets, Fire-arms. The Royal Artillery Regiment was established in the reign of Anne. HONORABLE ARTILLERY COMPANY of London, instituted in 1585, having ceased, was revived in 1610. It met for military exercise at the Artillery ground, Finsbury, where the London archers had met since 1498 (see Archery). In the civil war, 1642-8, the company took the side of the parliament, and greatly contributed towards its success. The company numbered 1200 in 1803, and 800 in 1861. Since 1842 the officers have been appointed by the queen. On the decease of the duke of Sussex in 1843, the prince consort became colonel and captain-general. He died 14 Dec. 1861, and the prince of Wales was appointed his successor... .24 Aug. 1863 NATIONAL VOLUNTEER ARTILLERY ASSOCIATION held its first annual meeting for shooting for prizes given by the queen and others, at Shoeburyness, July, 1865. Meetings were held and prizes distributed in July, 1866; July, 1867; Aug. 1868-78-79-80. ROYAL ARTILLERY INSTITUTION, established at Woolwich, proposed by licuts. F. Eardley-Wilmot and J. H. Lefroy, Feb. 1838; approved June, 1838; building completed Sept. 1840. Proceedings, Vol. I., published The alleged great deficiency of artillery in the British army much discussed, Sept. 1870; artillery brought to the camp at Aldershot, reported to be very fine..Sept. 1870 New organization of the artillery proposed, about 26 Feb. 1877 THE ANCIENT AND HONORABLE ÅRTILLERY COMPANY, of Boston, Mass., the oldest military organization in the United States, organized... Its printed series of annual sermons begins with the discourse of Urian Oakes. 1858 1638 1672 Artisans and Laborers' Dwellings Act, "to provide better dwellings," passed 31 July, 1868; another act was passed 29 June, 1875, " to facilitate the improvement of the dwellings of the working classes in large towns;" one for Scotland, 2 Aug. 1875; other acts passed in 1879. ARTISANS', LABORERS', AND GENERAL DWELLINGS COMPANY, registered 31 Dec. 1866; purchased estates in various parts of the country. The Shaftesbury estate (which see) was formally opened.. ......18 July, 1874 The director (Dr. John Baxter Langley), secretary (Mr. Wm. Swindlehurst), were sentenced to be imprisoned 18 months; and Mr. Edw. Saffery, estate agent, 12 months, for conspiring to defraud the company of about 24.3127.; trial.. 23-6 Oct. 1877 ARTISANS' INSTITUTE, for promoting general and technical knowledge, near St. Martin's Lane; established by aid of the duke of Bedford, lord Lyttelton, Mr. S. Morley, and others; opened.... ....14 Oct. 1874 Artists' Fund was established in 1810 to provide allowances for sick, and annuities for incapacitated, members. Artists' General Benevolent Institution, established 1814. Artist's Orphan Fund, 1871. Artois (N. France), a province once held by the Atrebates, conquered by the Franks in the fifth century, given by Charles the Bold, with Flanders, as a dowry to Arts. In the eighth century, the circle of sciences was composed of seven liberal arts-the tririum (grammar, rhetoric, logic), the quadrivium (arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy). - Harris. The Royal Society of England (which see) obtained its charter 2 April, 1663. The Society of Arts, to promote the polite arts, commerce, manufactures, and mechanics, originated in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Wm. Shipley, and its first president, lord Folkestone.... ....March, 1754 Art Unions began in France and Germany early in the present century. The first in Britain was established at Edinburgh. The Art Union of London, 444 West Strand, was founded 14 Feb. 1837; and chartered 1 Dec. 1846. The Art Union indemnity act was passed 3 Aug. 1844. Subscription for 1876, 20,932.; 1877, 15,5861. (depression of trade). American Art Union, the first in the United States, was established in New York, 1839; ceased to exist 1851 under prohibition of the lottery law. Burlington Fine Arts Club, for exhibition of works of art, etc., founded 1868 A memorial of a convention for promoting universally reproductions of works of art for the benefit of museums of all countries, signed by the prince of Wales, and the crown princes of Prussia, Russia, Denmark, Sweden, Italy, Saxony, and others, was sent to the duke of Marlborough.. .12 March, 1868 See British Institution, National Gallery, Royal Acad emy, Albert Hall, Academy. Arundel Castle (Sussex), built by the Saxons about 800. The duke of Norfolk enjoys the earldom of Arundel, as a feudal honor, by inheritance and possession of the castle, without any other creation. Philip Howard, son of the attainted duke of Norfolk, was made earl of Arundel, by summons, as possessor of this castle, 1580. It was thoroughly repaired by a late duke at a vast expense. Arundel Society, for the promotion of the knowledge of art, was established in 1848. It publishes facsimiles and photographs. Arundelian Marbles, called also Oxford Marbles; one containing the chronology of ancient history from 1582 to 355 B.C., and said to have been sculptured 264 B.C. They consist of 37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and were found in the isle of Paros, in the reign of James I., about 1610. They were collected by Mr. W. Petty, purchased by lord Arundel, and given by his grandson, Henry Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk, to the university of Oxford in 1667; and are therefore called also OXFORD MARBLES. The characters of inscriptions, by Maittaire, appeared in 1732, and a fine the inscriptions are Greek. A variorum edition of the one by Chandler in 1763; and translations by Selden, 1628; by Prideaux, 1676; see Kidd's Tracts; and Por son's Treatise, 1789. Aruspices, see Haruspices. They were totally defeated by col. Purdon.... .7 Aug. 1823 29 April, 1831 As, a Roman weight and coin: as a weight, it was a pound; as a coin, it had different weights, but the same value. In the reign of Servius, the as weighed a pound of brass; in the first Punic war, it weighed two ounces, 264 B.C.; in the second Punic war, one ounce, 218 B.C.; and afterwards half an ounce; its value about three far-offended at the British occupation of Elmina, the Ashanthings sterling. tees attacked the Fantees, our allies, with varying suc Asaph, St. (N. Wales), a bishopric said to have been founded by Kentigern, bishop of Glasgow. On returning into Scotland, about 560, he left St. Asaph his successor, from whom the see is named. It is valued in the king's books at 1877. 11s. 6d. The present cathedral was erected by bishop Redman, 1472-95. By an order in council, 1838, the sees of St. Asaph and Bangor were to have been united on the next vacancy in either, and the bishopric of Manchester created. This order was annulled in 1846. Present income 4200/.; see Manchester. The cathedral, restored by Sir Gilbert Scott, reopened 2 Sept. 1875. BISHOPS OF ST. ASAPH. 1802. Samuel Horsley, died 4 Oct. 1805. 1803. William Cleaver, died 15 May, 1815. 1815. John Luxmoore, died 21 Jan. 1830. 1830. William Carey, died 13 Sept. 1846. 1846. Thomas Vowler Short, resigned Feb. 1870; died 13 April, 1872. 1870. Joshua Hughes. Asbestos, a native fossil stone, which may be split into threads and filaments, and which is endued with the property of remaining unconsumed by fire. Cloth was made of it by the Egyptians (Herodotus), and napkins in the time of Pliny, 74; and also paper. The spinning of asbestos known at Venice about 1500.-Porta. Ascalon (Syria), a city of the Philistines, shared the fate of Phoenicia and Judea. The Egyptian army was defeated here by the crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon, 12 Aug. 1099. Ascalon was besieged by the latter in 1148, taken in 1153; and again in 1191. Its fortifications were destroyed for fear of the crusaders by the sultan, 1270. Ascension, an island in the Atlantic ocean, 800 miles N.W. of St. Helena, discovered by the Portuguese on Ascension day, 20 May, 1501; and taken possession of by the English, Oct. 1815. Ascension day, also called Holy Thursday, when the church celebrates the ascension of our Saviour, the fortieth day after his resurrection from the dead, 14 May, 33; first commemorated, it is said, 68. Ascension day, 1882, 18 May; 1883, 3 May; 1884, 22 May; 1885, 14 May. Society for the better observance of Ascension day, formed Aschaffenburg, on the Maine, Bavaria, S.W. Germany. Here, on 14 July, 1866, the Prussians defeated the German Federal army, captured the town, and took 2000 prisoners. cess... ..May, 1864 .April, 1873 They were severely repulsed, 13 June; Elmina partially Sir Garnet Wolseley (see Hudson Bay) appointed gover- Col. Wood's indecisive attack at Faisorah.. ..27 Nov. offered; releases captives; prepares for battle....Jan. 1874 แ 66 Ashantees defeated by sir Garnet Wolseley at Amoaful, burned. .6 Feb. 66 The king, fearing attack from capt. Glover, sends first inSir Garnet Wolseley enters Cape Coast Castle, 19 Feb.; stalment of gold (1000 oz.)... sails; arrives at Portsmouth.. ..13 Feb. 66 .21 March, The king sends the golden axe to the queen, who re- 66 Aug. 1842, by Alexander lord Ashburton and Daniel Webster, then secretary of state, plenipotentiaries; it Ascham Society, formed to promote social inter-defined the boundaries of the respective countries becourse among gentlemen engaged in education, and im- tween Canada and the state of Maine, settled the extraprove educational methods, etc., 1880. First president, dition of criminals, etc. J. A. Froude; honorary members, professors Huxley, Tyndall, Morley, etc., sirs F. Pollock, J. Lubbock, F. Leighton, and other eminent men. Ascot Races, see Races. As Asculum, now ASCOLI, Apulia, S. Italy. Near it, Pyrrhus of Epirus defeated the Romans, 279 B.C. culum, a city of the Piceni, with all their country, was conquered by the consul Sempronius, 268 B.C. Here Andrea, general of the emperor Henry VI., endeavoring to wrest Naples from Tancred, was defeated and slain, A.D. 1190. Ashantees, warlike negroes of West Africa. In 1807 they conquered Fantee, in which the British settlement Cape Coast Castle is situated. On the death of their king, who had been friendly to the Ashdod, or Azorus, seat of the worship of the Phoenician god Dagon, which fell down before the ark of the Lord, captured by the Philistines from the Israelites, about 1141 B.C. (1 Sam. v.). Ashdod was taken by the Egyptians after 29 years' siege, the longest recorded. Ashdown, or ASSENDUNE, now thought to be Aston, Berks, where Ethelred and his brother Alfred defeated the Danes in 871. At Ashdown, near SaffronWalden, Essex, Canute defeated Edmund Ironside with great slaughter, 1016. Tradition says that the day after the battle in 871 Alfred caused his army to carve the figure of a white horse, the standard of Hengist, in the vale. Mr. Thomas Hughes (Tom Brown "), in his book "The Scouring of the White Horse" (1859), describes the work and festival on 17 and 18 Sept. 1857, a ceremony performed at intervals from time immemorial. Records are found of the "scouring" in 1755, 27 May; 1776, 15 May; 1780, 1785, 1803, 1812 or 1813, 1825, 19, 20 Sept.; Sept. 1843. Ashmolean Museum (books, manuscripts, coins, | Danube was destroyed, and Napoleon's retreat endanetc.) was presented to the university of Oxford by Elias gered; but the success of the Austrians was fruitless to Ashmole, the herald and antiquary, and opened 1682. It them. included the collections of the Tradescants, to whom he Asphalt, a solid bituminous substance, probably dewas executor. He died at Lambeth in 1692. The Ash-rived from decayed vegetable matter. It was used as a molean Society, Oxford (scientific), was established in building material in ancient Babylon. Its application 1828. Ashtaroth, a Phoenician goddess, occasionally worshipped by the Israelites (see Judg. ii. 13), about 1406 B.C., and even by Solomon, about 984 B.C. (1 Kings xi. 5). Ash-Wednesday, the first day of Lent, which in early times began on the Sunday now called the first in Lent. It is said that pope Felix III., in 487, first added the four days preceding the old Lent Sunday to raise the number of fasting days to forty; that Gregory the Great (pope, 590) introduced the sprinkling of ashes on the first of the four additional days, and hence the names of Dies Cinerum, or Ash-Wednesday. At the Reformation this practice was abolished "as being a mere shadow, or vain show." Ash-Wednesday, 1882, 22 Feb.; 1883, 7 Feb.; 1884, 27 Feb.; 1885, 18 Feb. Asia, the largest division of the globe, so called by the Greeks from the nymph Asia, daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, and wife of Japhet. Asia was the first quarter of the world peopled: here the law of God was first promulgated; here many of the greatest monarchies of the earth had their rise; and hence most of the arts and sciences have been derived. Its early history is derived from the Bible and from Herodotus, who relates the wars of Croesus, Cyrus, and others; see Jews, China, India, Persia, Turkey, and the other countries. Asia Minor, now ANATOLIA, comprised the Ionian colonies on the coast, the early seats of Greek civilization, and the countries Mysia, Phrygia, Lycia, Bithynia, Caria, Lydia, Cappadocia, Galatia, etc., with the cities Troy, Ephesus, Smyrna (all which see). From the time of the rise of the Assyrian monarchy, about 2000 B.C., to that of the Turks under Osman, Asia Minor was the battle-field of the conquerors of the world. for this purpose was revived by Eirinus, a Greek physician, who discovered beds of it near Neufchatel in 1712. Asphalt stone was found at Seyssel, near Geneva, in 1802; and, after several failures, count Sassenay brought it into use for pavement about 1832. The artificial asphalt obtained from gas-works began to be used as pavement about 1838. Claridge's patent asphalt was laid down in Trafalgar Square, Jan. 1864. Various kinds of asphalt pavement have been since laid in London and New York. Aspromonte (Naples). Here Garibaldi was defeated, wounded, and taken prisoner 29 Aug. 1862, having injudiciously risen against the French occupation of Rome. Assam (N.E. India), acquired by the British in 1825, and surrendered by the king of Ava in 1826. The tea-plant was discovered here by Mr. Bruce in 1823. A superintendent of the tea-forests was appointed in 1836, the cultivation of the plant having been recommended by lord William Bentinck in 1834. The Assam Tea Company, by whom Chinese laborers and coolies were introduced, was established in 1839. After several years, the plantations suffered severely, it is said, through overspeculation and neglect of the laborers; as a remedy, a labor act was passed at Calcutta about July, 1867. Assassination Plot, said to have been formed by the earl of Aylesbury and others to assassinate William III., near Richmond, Surrey, and restore James II., 14 Feb. 1695–6. It was discovered by Prendergast. Assassins, or ASSASSINIANS, fanatical Mahometans, collected by Hassan-ben-Sabah, and settled in Persia about 1090. In Syria they possessed a large tract of land among the mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the marquess of Montferrat in 1192, Lewis of Bavaria about B.C. 1043 in 1213, and the khan of Tartary in 1254. They were .about 711 extirpated in Persia about 1258 and in Syria about 1272. The chief of the corps was named "Ancient of the Mountain," and "Old Man of the Mountain." They trained up young people to assassinate such persons as their chief had devoted to destruction.-Hénault. From them came the word assassin. .about 546 .begins 544 332 First settlement of the Ionian Greeks..... Contest between the Greeks and Persians. Contended for by his successors; separate kingdoms established... .321-278 Gradually acquired by the Romans.............. B. C. 188 to A. D. 609 15 Asiatic Societies. The "Asiatic Society of Bengal," at Calcutta, was established by sir William Jones in 1784, "the bounds of its investigation to be the geographical limits of Asia." The "Royal Asiatic Society," which has several branches in India, was founded in 1823. It established the "Oriental Translation Fund” in 1828, which had published 83 volumes of Eastern literature in 1865; the "Literary Society of Madras," 1845. Askesian Society (from the Greek äornoic, exercise), instituted in March, 1796, by some young men for discussing philosophical subjects. Its founders were William Allen, William Phillips, Alexander Tilloch, Luke Howard, W. H. Pepys, and others. In 1806 it merged into the Geographical Society. Asmonæans, the proper name of the family termed Maccabees (which see). Asperne, GREAT, a town, and Essling, a village near the Danube and Vienna, where a series of desperate conflicts took place between the Austrian army under the archduke Charles and the French under Napoleon, Massena, etc., on 21-22 May, 1809, ending in the retreat of Napoleon. The Austrian loss exceeded 20,000 men, and the French 30,000. Marshal Lannes, mortally wounded 22 May, died 31 May. The bridge of the REMARKABLE ASSASSINATIONS AND ATTEMPTS. Alexander II. of Russia; attempts: by Karakozow at St. 30 Dec. 1879 1878; by Francisco Otero Gonzalez.. Amadeus, duke of Aosta, when king of Spain; attempt. |