ancient origin, were suppressed in 1791; re-established, more than 200 years afterwards, and until the arrival 1797; and reorganized in 1816, 1842, and 1852. In 1859, of Cecrops), is stated to have occurred 1764 B.C.; see the octrois of Paris produced above 54,000,000 francs. Deluge. The Belgian government became very popular in July, 1860, by abolishing the octrois. Odes are very ancient; among the Greeks they were extempore compositions sung in honor of the gods. Anacreon's odes were composed about 532; Pindar's, 498 or 446; and Horace's from 24 to 13, all B.C. Anciently odes were divided into strophe, antistrophe, and epode; see Poets-laureate and Lyric Poetry. Odessa, a port on the Black Sea, built by the empress Catharine of Russia, 1784-92, after the peace of Jassy. In 1817 it was made a free port, since when its prosperity has rapidly increased. It was partially bombarded by the British, 21 April, 1854, in consequence of the Russian batteries having fired on a flag of truce, 6 April. On 12 May, the English frigate Tiger stranded here, and was destroyed by Russian artillery. The captain, Giffard, and many of his crew were killed, and the rest made prisoners. Ohio, a western state of the United States, settled by the French in 1673, was ceded to the British with Canada in 1763; extensively settled in 1788; and admitted into the Union, 1802. Population, 1880, 3,198,239. Capital, Columbus. Ohm's Law, for determining the quantity of the electro-motive force of the voltaic battery, was published in 1827. It is in conformity with the discovery that the earth may be employed as a conductor, thus saving the return wire in electric-telegraphy. Oil was used for burning in lamps as early as the epoch of Abraham, about 1921 B.C. It was the custom of the Jews to anoint with oil persons appointed to high offices, as the priests and kings (Psa. cxxxiii. 2; 1 Sam. x. 1; xvi. 13). The fact that oil, if passed through redhot iron pipes, will be resolved into a combustible gas, was long known to chemists; and after the process of lighting by coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor Odometer (from the Greek ooog, way, and μirpov, and Martineau contrived apparatus for producing oil-gas measure); see Pedometer. on a large scale, 1815. Oil-frescos, see under Painting. Olbers, the asteroid, now termed Pallas, discovered by M. Olbers in 1802. Odontology (from the Greek ódóvrɛç, teeth), the science of the teeth, may be said to have really begun with the researches of prof. Richard Owen, who in 1839 made the first definite announcement of the organic connection between the vascular and vital soft parts of the Old Bailey Sessions Court is held for the trial frame and the hard substance of a tooth. His compre- of criminals, and its jurisdiction comprehends the counhensive work "Odontography" (illustrated with beauti-ty of Middlesex as well as the city of London. It is held ful plates) was published 1840-5. The Odontological Society was established 1856. Odrysæ, a people of Thrace. Their king, Teres, retained his independence of the Persians, 508 B.C. Sitalces, his son, enlarged his dominions, and in 429 aided Amyntas against Perdiccas II. of Macedon with an army of 150,000 men. Sitalces, killed in battle with the Triballi, 424, was succeeded by Seuthes, who reigned prosperously. Cotys, another king (382-353), disputed the possession of the Thracian Chersonesus with Athens. After nine or ten years' warfare, Philip II. of Macedon reduced the Odryse to tributaries, and founded Philippopolis and other colonies, 343. The Romans, after their conquest of Macedon, favored the Odrysæ, and in 42 their king, Sadales, bequeathed his territories to the Romans. The Odrysæ, turbulent subjects, and often chastised, were finally incorporated into the empire by Vespasian, about A.D. 70. eight times in the year by the royal commission of oyer During some trials in the old court, the lord mayor, one May, 1750 1772 Twenty-eight persons killed at the execution of Mr. Steele's murderers at the Old Bailey.. 22 Feb. 1807 Old Believers, a Russian sect said to number about 12,000,000, founded by Nicon, a minister of the czar Alexis (1645-76). They profess to adhere to the old reading of the Slavonian sacred books, which have been superseded by the present Russian church. The czar Alexander II. granted liberty of worship to the sect in 1879. Old Catholics, the name assumed in Germany by the members of the Roman Catholic church opposed to the dogma of papal infallibility, headed by prof. Döllin Odyl, the name given in 1845 by baron von Reichenbach to a so-called new "imponderable, or influence," said to be developed by magnets, crystals, the human body, heat, electricity, chemical action, and the whole material universe. The odylic force is said to give rise to luminous phenomena, visible to certain sensitive per-ger of Munich. After three days' conference at Munich, sons only. The baron's "Researches on Magnetism, etc., in Relation to the Vital Force," translated by Dr. Gregory, were published in 1850. Emanuel Swedenborg (died 1772) described similar phenomena. Sept. 1871, they decided to set up independent worship, Dr. Dollinger received delegates from Eastern and West ern churches at Bonn, with a view for union with the Old Catholics, and after much discussion certain preliminaries were agreed on; much result was not expected.... ..... 14 Sept. First Old Catholic church in Berlin opened.....30 Nov. 66 1875 In Prussia about 20,000 Old Catholics (about 8,000,000 Romanists)... Congress at Bonn: bishop of Winchester, canon Liddon, and several Oriental clergy present, 12 Aug.; agreement respecting the Filioque clause.. .16 Aug. Circular put forth by the Old Catholics at Bonn asking for a church for their worship (they declare opposition to the Vatican decrees of 18 July, 1870; they do not secede from the Catholic church, but desire Catholicism free from debasing doctrines; repudiate infallibility and supremacy of the pope; sanction reading of the Bible and divine worship in the vulgar tongue; and marriage of priests).. Congress at Bonn: strong opposition to celibacy of clergy; question deferred... .....early in June, 1876 Congress at Mentz opens... 28 Sept. Meeting at Berne: bishop Cotterill of Edinburgh and M. Hyacinthe Loyson there, 17 Aug. 1879; at Geneva, 23 May, 1880; at Baden-Baden.... .19-21 Sept. 1880 Old Man of the Mountain, see Assassins. Old Style, see New Style. Dec. 1877 1853. Feb. 27. Peter, son; born 8 July, 1827. Heir: Augustus, son; born 16 Nov. 1852. Olefiant Gas, a combination of hydrogen and carbon which burns with much brilliancy. In 1862, Berthelot formed it artificially by means of alcohol. Oléron, Laws OF, relating to sea affairs, are said to have been enacted by Richard I. of England when at the island of Oléron, France, 1194; which is now doubted. Olives are named in the earliest accounts of Egypt and Greece; and at Athens their cultivation was taught by Cecrops, 1556 B.C. They were first planted in Italy about 562 B.C. The olive has been cultivated in Eng land since A.D. 1648; the Cape olive since 1730. Olmütz, the ancient capital of Moravia. Here the emperor Ferdinand abdicated, on behalf of his nephew, Francis Joseph, 2 Dec. 1848; and here the latter promulgated a new constitution, 4 March, 1849. A conference was held here 29 Nov. 1850, under the czar Nicholas, when the difficulties between Austria and Prussia respecting the affairs of Hesse-Cassel were arranged. Oltenitza. A Turkish force having crossed the Danube, under Omar Pacha, established themselves at Oltenitza, in spite of the vigorous attacks of the Russians, who were repulsed with loss, 2 and 3 Nov. 1853. On the 4th a desperate attempt to dislodge the Turks by gen. Danneberg with 9000 men, was defeated with great loss. Olustee (Florida), BATTLE OF, 20 Feb. 1864. Gen. Seymour was defeated by the confederates. 1 Olympiads, the era of the Greeks, dating from July, 776 B.C., the year in which Chorobus was successful at the Olympic games. This era was reckoned by periods of four years, each period being called an Olympiad, and in marking a date the year and Olympiad were both mentioned. The computation of Olympiads ceased with the 305th, A.D. 440. Olympic Games, so famous among the Greeks, said to have been instituted in honor of Jupiter by the Idæi Dactyli, 1453 B.C., or by Pelops, 1307 B.C., revived by Iphitus, 884 B.C., were held at the beginning of every fifth year, on the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, in the Peloponnesus (now the Morea), to exercise the youth in five kinds of combats, the conquerors being highly honored. The prize contended for was a crown made of a kind of wild olive, appropriated to this use. The festival was abolished by Theodosius, A.D. 394. In 1858 M. Zappas, a wealthy Peloponnesian, gave funds to re-establish these games, under the auspices of the queen of Greece. OLYMPIC THEATRE, London, opened 1806; see Theatres. Olympieium (near Peleponnesus), the great temple of Jupiter erected by Libon of Elis, at the charge of the Eleans, after their conquest of the country, 572-472 B.c. For this temple Phidias made the colossal statue of the god, in gold and ivory, 437-433 B.C. The German explorations by Messrs. Hirschfeld and Bötticher, planned by prof. Ernst Curtius, the historian, began in Oct. 1875. Torsos and other relics were found. Above 904 objects in marble, many coins, bronzes, inscriptions, etc., found, 1875-8. Explorations closed, Nov. 1880. Sparta, in 382-379 B.C. Olynthus, a city (N. Greece) subdued in war by 350 B.C., by whom it was destroyed, 347. Demosthenes It resisted Philip of Macedon, delivered three orations on its behalf, 349. Omens, see Augury. Amphictyon was the first who is recorded as having drawn prognostications from omens, 1497 B.C. Alexander the Great and Mithridates the Great are said to have studied omens. At the birth of the latter, 131 B.C., there were seen for seventy days together two splendid comets; and this omen, we are told, directed all the actions of Mithridates throughout his life.-Justin. Ommiades, a dynasty of Mahometan caliphs, beginning with Moawiyah, of whom fourteen reigned in Arabia, 661-750; and eighteen at Cordova, in Spain, 755-1031. Omnibus (Latin omnibus, "for all"). The idea of such conveyances is ascribed to Pascal, about 1662, when similar carriages were started, but soon discontinued. They were revived in Paris about 11 April, 1828; and introduced into London by a coach-proprietor named Shillibeer. The first omnibus started from Paddington to the Bank of England on Saturday, 4 July, 1829. Regulations were made respecting omnibuses by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 33 (1853); see Cabriolets and Hackney-coaches. The London Omnibus Company was established in Jan. 1865, it was stated that there were then running, about 1856. The saloon omnibuses ran in 1857-60. In Sept. 620 omnibuses belonging to the General Omnibus Comabout 1050 omnibuses, with 13,000 drivers and conductpany, and 450 belonging to private proprietors; in 1867, ors.-Sir R. Muyme. In 1873 about 1400 omnibuses. Dividend, Aug. 1878, 12 per cent.—Omnibus bill, one which deals with many topics. Omnimeter, a new surveying apparatus (combining the theodolite and level, and comprising a telescope and microscope), invented by Eckhold, a German engineer, to supersede chain measuring; announced Sept. 1869. 'Oneida," collision with the Bombay; see United States, 1870. One-pound Notes issued by the Bank of England, 4 March, 1797; withdrawn for England, 1823; reissued for a short time, 16 Dec. 1825. Ontario, formerly Canada West, or Upper Canada; capital, Toronto. Population, 1861, 1,396,091; 1871, 1,620,851. O. P. (old prices) Riot began on the opening of the new Covent-garden Theatre, London, by J. P. Kemble, with increased prices of admission, 18 Sept., and lasted till 16 Dec. 1809, when the old charges were restored. Of the play, "Macbeth," not one word was heard, and great injury was done to the theatre. Open-air Mission, founded 1853. Races, fairs, etc., are visited by preachers. Open-spaces Act (METROPOLITAN), 40 & 41 Vict. c. 35 (1877), authorizes the Metropolitan Board of Works and the corporation of London to acquire open spaces for the benefit of the public. Ophicleide, the keyed bassoon, said to have been invented by Frichot, a Frenchman, in London, between 1791 and 1800. Ophthalmic Hospitals, see lospitals. interior of the eye, invented by professor H. Helmholtz, Ophthalmoscope, an apparatus for inspecting the and described by him in 1851. Opéra Comique, a new theatre, 299 Strand; open- | Lincoln's Inn theatre. It ran for sixty-three successive ed 29 Oct. 1870, by Mlle. Déjazet and a French com- nights, but so offended the persons in power that the pany. The French opéra comique began 1715. lord chamberlain refused a license for the performance Opera-house, THE ITALIAN, OF QUEEN'S, or (since of a second part of it entitled "Polly." By Gay's friends' 1837) HER MAJESTY'S THEATRE. The original build- subscription, his profits on its publication amounted to ing is generally supposed to have been constructed by 1200., whereas the Beggar's Opera gained him only sir John Vanbrugh, though Mr. Pennant attributes it to 400%.; see Theatres. sir Christopher Wren. It was built as "the Queen's (afterwards changed to King's) theatre;" opened 9 April, 1705; and burned down 17 June, 1789. The foundation of the new theatre was laid 3 April, 1790; and the house was opened 22 Sept. 1791, on an improved plan; a new exterior was erected in 1820, from designs by Mr. Nash. This theatre was totally destroyed by fire (cause unknown) on the night of 6-7 Dec. 1867. The loss of the lessee, Mr. Mapleson, was about 12,000l., and that of Mlle. Titiens (valuable jewels and dresses) was valued at 20007.; rebuilt, but internal arrangements not completed. Moody and Sankey's revival meetings were held here, 12 April-31 May, 1875. The new house was opened for Italian opera by Mr. Mapleson, 28 April, 1877; see Theatres.-The ENGLISH OPERA (or Lyceum) was opened 15 June, 1816. It was entirely destroyed by fire 16 Feb. 1830. The new English Opera-house, or Lyceum, was erected from designs by Mr. S. Beazley, and opened in July, 1834; see Theatres and National Opera-house. Operas. Adam de la Hale, a Trouvère, surnamed "le Bossu d'Arras," born in 1240, is, as far as has yet been ascertained, the composer of the first comic opera, Li Gieus (Le Jeu) de Robin et de Marion. The Italian opera began with the Il Satiro of Cavaliere, and the Dafne of Rinuccini, with music by Peri, about 1590. Their Eurydice was represented at Florence, 1600, on the marriage of Marie de Médicis with Henry IV. of France. L'Orfeo, Favola in Musica, composed by Monteverde, was performed in 1607, and is supposed to have been the first opera that was ever published. About 1669 the abbot Perrin obtained a grant from Louis XIV. to set up an opera in Paris, where, in 1672, was acted Pomona. Scarlatti produced 108 operas, 1680 et seq.; followed by Stradella, Lulli, and other composers. Purcell produced Dido and Eneas, 1677; and many oth Opium, the juice of the white poppy, was known to the ancients, its cultivation being mentioned by Homer, and its medicinal use by Hippocrates. It is largely cultivated in British India, and was introduced into China by our merchants, which led eventually to the war of 1839, the importation being forbidden by the Chinese government. The revenue derived from opium by the Indian government in 1862 was about 7,850,000%.; in 1874, 8,000,000l. Laudanum, a preparation of opium, was employed early in the seventeenth century. A number of alkaloids have been discovered in opium: narcotine by Derosne, and morphia by Sertürner, in 1803. A society for suppressing the opium trade held a meeting in London, 17 Jan. 1881. Oporto (W. Portugal), the ancient Calle, one of the most impregnable cities in Europe, and the mart of Portuguese wine known as "Port," A chartered company for the regulation of the port-wine trade was established in 1756. The French, under marshal Soult, were surprised here by lord Wellington, and defeated in an action fought 12 May, 1809. The Miguelites besieged Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with considerable loss, 19 Sept. 1832. The Oporto Wine Company was abolished in 1834, but re-established by a royal decree, 7 April, 1838. An international exhibition was opened here by the king, 18 Sept. 1865; see Portugal. Opportunists, a name given to French politicians (especially the ultra-liberals), who suspend agitation for their peculiar opinions till a suitable opportunity comes; among them Gambetta is prominent, 1876-8. Optic Nerves are said to have been discovered by N. Varole, a surgeon and physician of Bologna, about 1538.-Nouv. Dict. 1762 Arne's Artaxerxes.. Double refraction explained by Bartholinus.. Dr. Tyndall's Lectures on Light first illustrated by Duboscq's electric lamp at the Royal Institution, London, 1856 The spectroscope constructed and used by Kirchhoff and Bunsen. 1861 Researches of Mr. Wm. Spottiswoode on polarized light.1871-8 (see Telescope, Microscope, Stereoscope, Pseudoscope, Spectrum, Photography, etc.) Optimism (from optimus, the best), the doctrine that everything which happens is for the best, in opposition to Pessimism (from pessimus, the worst). The germ of optimism is to be found in Plato, and in St. Augustin and other fathers; and has been especially propounded by Malebranche and Leibnitz, and adopted by Pope, Bolingbroke, Rousseau, and others. Optimism, as expressed in the term "the best of all possible worlds," is ridiculed by Voltaire (1694-1778) in his "Candide." The term meliorism (from melior, better) has been lately introduced; see Pessimism. "Option," a term given at the time to the permission given to the inhabitants of Alsace and Lorraine by the German government to choose, before 30 Sept. 1872, whether they would quit their country or become German subjects. Great numbers emigrated into the French territories. The "option" of archbishops respecting their claim on a benefice becoming void on the creation or translation of a bishop was abolished in 1845. to man. they would become an easy prey to the Roman Catholics, from their small numbers, unless they associated for their defence, and the first Orange lodge was formed in Armagh; but the name of Orangemen already existed. An Orange lodge was formed in Dublin; the members published a declaration of their principles (the maintenance of church and state) in Jan. 1798. After 1813 Orangeism declined, but revived again in 1827, when the duke of Cumberland became grand-master; and it is stated that in 1836 there were 145,000 Orangemen in England and 125,000 in Ireland. After a parliamentary inquiry, Orange clubs were broken up in conformity with resolutions of the house of commons, but were revived in 1845. In Oct. 1857, the lord chancellor of Ireland ordered that justices of the peace should not belong to Orange clubs. The Orangemen in Canada were greatly excited during the visit of the prince of Wales in Sept. 1860. Mr. William Johnston, a grand-master, convicted of violating the Party Processions act, was elected M.P. for Belfast, Nov. 1869; see Belfast. The Orangemen's parade in New York, 12 July, 1871, led to a riot, in which 60 lives were lost. Oranges. The sweet, or China, orange was first brought into Europe from China by the Portuguese in 1547; and it is asserted that the identical tree whence all the European orange-trees of this sort were produced is still preserved at Lisbon, in the gardens of one of its nobility. Orange-trees were first brought to England and planted, with little success, in 1595; they are said to have been planted at Beddington park, near Croydon, Surrey. The duty on imported oranges was repealed in 1860. The culture of oranges in Florida has rapidly grown into a great industry since 1865. Orator Henley. An eccentric English gentleman of some talents, in 1726, opened his "oratory," a kind of chapel, in Newport market, where he gave lectures on theological topics on Sundays, and on other subjects on Wednesdays, every week. Novelty procured him many Oracles, a term applied to revelations made by God hearers, but he was too imprudent to gain any permaThey were given to the Jews at the Mercy-nent advantage. He removed his oratory to Clare marseat in the tabernacle; see Exod. xxv. 18-22. The Holy ket, and sank into obscurity previously to his death, in Scriptures are the Christian "oracles," Rom. iii. 2; 1 Pet. iv. 11. King Ahaziah sent to consult the oracle of Baal-zebub at Ekron about 896 B.C. The Greeks consulted especially the oracles of Jupiter and Apollo (see Dodona and Delphi); and the Italians those of Faunus, Fortune, and Mars. Oran, Algeria (N. Africa), a Moorish city several times captured by the Spaniards; definitively occupied by the French in 1831, who have since added docks, etc. Orange, a principality in S.E. France, formerly a lordship in the ninth or tenth century. It has been ruled by four houses successively: that of Giraud Adhemar (to 1174); of Baux (1182-1393); of Châlons (to 1530); and of Nassau (1530-1713); see Nassau. Philibert the Great, prince of Orange, the last of the house of Châlons, having been wronged by Francis I. of France, entered the service of the emperor Charles V., to whom he rendered great services by his military talents. He was killed at the siege of Florence, 3 Aug. 1530. He was succeeded by his nephew-in-law, René of Nassau; see Princes of Orange under Holland. The eldest son of the king of Holland is styled the Prince of Orange, although the principality was ceded to France in 1713; see Arausio. Orange River Territory, a free state of Dutch Boers in South Africa. The British government proclaimed its authority over this territory on 3 Feb. 1848, but transferred (by sir George Clerk) its powers to a provisional government, 29 March, 1854. A Volksraad (legislative council) and governor were appointed. Disputes arose respecting the ownership of the diamond-fields in 1868. Population about 50,000 (half whites), 1877. Orangemen. The "Battle of the Diamond," 21 Sept. 1795 (see Diamond), and the treachery experienced by the Protestants on that occasion, convinced them 1756. Oratorians (from the Latin orare, to pray), a regular order of priests established by St. Philip Neri about 1564, and so called from the oratory of St. Jerome at Rome, where they prayed. They had a foundation in France, commenced by Guillaume Gibieuf and Pierre de Berulle (afterwards cardinal), 1612; approved by pope Paul V. 1613.-The rev. Frederick Faber and others, as "Fathers of the Oratory," established themselves first in King William street, Strand, in 1848, and afterwards at Brompton. Oratorio, a kind of musical sacred drama, the subject of it being generally taken from the Scriptures. The origin of our oratorios (so named from having been first performed in an oratory) is ascribed to St. Philip Neri, about 1550. The first true oratorio-Emilio del Cavaliere's "Rappresentazione "-was performed at Rome in 1600. He was followed by Giovanni Carissimi, Alessandro Scarlatti, etc. The first oratorio in London was performed in Lincoln's Inn theatre, in Portugal street, in 1732. Handel's oratorio of "Israel in Egypt" was produced in 1738, and the "Messiah" in 1741; Haydn's "Creation in 1798; Beethoven's "Mount of Olives," 1803; Spohr's "Last Judgment" (properly "Things "), 1825; Mendelssohn's "St. Paul" in 1836, and “ Elijah" in 1846; Costa's "Eli," 1865; "Naaman," 1864, S. Bennett's "Woman of Samaria," 1867; Benedict's "St. Peter," 1870; 1876; and "Joseph," 1877; Dr. P. Armes's “Hezekiah,” Macfarren's "John the Baptist," 1873; "Resurrection," 1878. Orchomenus, a small Greek state in Boeotia, was destroyed by the Thebans, 368 B.C.; restored by Philip II. of Macedon, 354; and given up by him to Thebes, 346. Ordeal was known among the Greeks and Jews (Numb. v. 2). It was introduced into England by the Order of the Corporate Reunion, virtually a new episcopal church, said to arise out of the Christian Unity Association (which see). It proposed to form four stations (Canterbury, York, Caerleon, and St. Andrews), with rectors and provincials; announced 11 Sept. 1877. Orders, see Knighthood. Saxons. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty might choose | Amsterdam has a set of pipes that imitate a chorus of whether he would put himself for trial upon God and his human voices. Of the organs in ENGLAND, that at St. country, by twelve men, as at this day, or upon God George's Hall, Liverpool, by Mr. Willis, was the largest : only. The trial by ordeal was abolished in 1218. next in order, that at York minster; and that in the Music-hall, Birmingham. In London, the largest was, perhaps, that of Spitalfields church; and chat in Christ church was nearly as extensive. The erection of the famous Temple organ was competed for by Schmidt and Harris; after long disputes, the question was referred to vote, and Mr. Jefferies, afterwards chief-justice, gave the casting-vote in favor of Schmidt (called Father Smith), about 1682. A monster organ was erected in the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, in June, 1857. The organ by Willis, at the Royal Albert Hall, now said to be the largest in the world, 1871. The largest organ in America is in the Music Hall, Boston. It was built by Walker, and has 4 manuals, 89 stops, and 4000 pipes. Other organs in the United States having from 2500 to 4000 pipes are those in Trinity and St. George's churches, New York; Plymouth Church and the Tabernacle, Brooklyn; Holy Trinity and Temple Emanuel, New York. These are all the work of American builders. A noble organ (by Bryceson), with many appliances, opened in the hall, Primrose Hill road, London, N., Jan. 1876. Barrel organs are said to have been first made early in the eighteenth century. The finest was the Apollonicon (which Orders in Council were issued by the British government 7 Jan. and 11 Nov. 1807, prohibiting trade with the ports occupied by the French, being reprisals for Napoleon's Berlin decree (which see). They greatly checked the progress of manufactures in this country, and caused much distress till their removal in 1814. Ordinances, see Ordonnances, Self-denying Ordi nances. Ordination of ministers in the Christian church began with Christ and his apostles; see Mark iii. 14, and Acts vi. and xiv. 23. In England, in 1549, a new form of ordination of ministers was ordered to be prepared by a committee of six prelates and six divines. Ordnance Office. Before the invention of guns, this office was supplied by officers under the following names: the bowyer, the crossbowyer, the galeater, or purveyor of helmets, the armorer, and the keeper of the tents. Henry VIII. placed it under the management of a master-general, a lieutenant, surveyor, etc. The master-general was chosen from among the first generals in the service of the sovereign. The appointment was formerly for life; but since the Restoration was held durante bene placito, and not unfrequently by a cabinet minister. -Beatson. The letters-patent for this office were revoked 25 May, 1855, and its duties vested in the minister of war, lord Panmure. The last master-general was lord Fitzroy-Somerset, afterwards lord Raglan. Ordnance Survey. The trigonometrical survey of England was commenced by gen. Roy in 1783, continued by col. Colby, and completed by col. (afterwards sir Henry) James in 1856. The publication of the maps commenced in 1819, under the direction of col. Mudge, and was completed in 1862; a large part of these maps have been colored geologically. The survey of Ireland has been completed and published; that of Scotland is still going on. By the Survey act, passed 12 May, 1870, the Ordnance survey was transferred to the Board of Works. Directors: lieut.-gen. John Cameron, succeeded sir Henry James in 1875, died 30 June, 1878, col. A. C. Cooke. Ordonnances, the laws enacted by the Capetan kings of France previous to 1789. They began with "In the name of the king," and ended with "Such is our good pleasure." The first in French is dated 1287 (Philip IV.). The publication of these "ordonnances," ordered by Louis XIV., 1706, is still in progress. The "ordonnances" of Charles X., promulgated 26 July, 1850, led to the revolution. Oregon, one of the United States. A dispute respecting boundaries arose in 1845 between the British government and that of the United States, which was settled by treaty, 12 June, 1846. Oregon was admitted as a state Feb. 1859. see). Organic Synthesis, see Chemistry. Oriel College (Oxford), founded in 1326, by Adam de Brome, archdeacon of Stow, and almoner to king Edward II. This college derives its name from a tenement called l'Oriole, on the site of which the building stands. these scholars was held at Paris, 1 Sept. 1873; M. Léon Oriflamme, see Auriflamma. the writings of Origen, who lived 185-253. They mainOrigenists pretended to draw their opinions from tained that Christ was the son of God no other way than by adoption and grace; that souls were created before the bodies; that the sun, moon, stars, and the waters that are under the firmament have souls; that the torments of the damned shall have an end; and that the fallen angels shall, after a time, be restored to their first condition. They were condemned by councils, and the reading of Origen's work was forbidden.-Burke. These doctrines were condemned by the council of Constantinople in 553. Orissa, a province of N.W. Bengal, India,with an area of 74,413 square miles, and a population of 20,000,000. Organ, a development of the pandean-pipes; the It was conquered by Clive in 1755, and nearly all ac"organ" in Gen. iv. 21 should be translated pipe. The quired by the company in 1765. It suffered much by invention is attributed to Archimedes, about 220 B.C.; famine in 1770 and 1792-3, and more especially from the and to Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 250 B.C. end of 1865 to Nov. 1866, when it is said about 750,000 The organ was brought to Europe from the Greek em- persons perished. The government and officials were pire, and was applied to religious devotions in churches censured for neglect and want of forethought. It is also about A.D. 657.-Bellarmin. Organs were used in the said that during a hurricane in Oct. 1836, 22,500 persons Western churches by pope Vitalianus in 658.—Ammonius. were drowned. It is affirmed that the organ was known in France in the time of Louis I., 815, when one was constructed by an Italian priest. The organ at Haarlem is one of the largest in Europe; it has 60 stops and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with 110 stops and 5300 pipes. The organ at Orkney and Shetland Isles (north of Scotland) were conquered by Magnus III. of Norway, 1099, and were ceded to James III. as the dowry of his wife Margaret, in 1469. The Orkneys were the ancient Orcades; united with Shetland, they now form one of the Scotch |