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22 May, 1850

Garfield, James A., president of the United States; shot
by Charles Jules Guiteau, Washington, 2 July, 1881;
died from his wounds, 19 Sept. 1881; Guiteau convicted
of murder in the first degree, 26 Jan. 1882; sentenced
2 Feb. to be hanged on....
George III. of England; mad attempts, by Margaret Nichol.
son, 2 Aug. 1786; by James Hatfield...
George IV. (when regent), attempt....
Guise, Henry, duke of; by order of Henry III. of France,

..30 June, 1882
15 May, 1800
.28 Jan. 1817
23 Dec. 1588
Gustavus III. of Sweden; by Ankarström, 16 March; died
29 March, 1792
Henry III. of France; by Jacques Clément, 1 Aug.; died
2 Aug. 1589
Henry IV. of France; attempt, by Jean Châtel, 27 Dec.
1594; killed by Ravaillac...
14 May, 1610
Humbert I., king of Italy; attempt, by John Passananti,
at Naples.....
.17 Nov. 1878
Hussein Avni and other Turkish ministers; by Hassan,
a Circassian officer..
.15 June, 1876
Isabella II. of Spain; attempts, by La Riva, 4 May, 1847;
by Merino, 2 Feb. 1852; by Raymond Fuentes.. 28 May, 1856
James I. of Scotland; by nobles....
.21 Feb. 1437
James III. of Scotland; by nobles.
..11 June, 1488
Kotzebue, August, German dramatist, for political mo-
tives; by Karl Sand.
.23 March, 1819
15 April, 1865
.24 Dec. 1588
Louis XV. of France; attempt, by Damiens.......5 Jan. 1757
Louis Philippe of France; many attempts; by Fieschi,
28 July, 1835; by Alibaud, 25 June, 1836; by Meunier,
27 Dec. 1836; by Darmès, 15 Oct. 1840; by Lecomte,
14 April, 1846; by Henry...
Lytton, lord, viceroy of India; attempt, by
Marat; by Charlotte Corday...

Lincoln, Abraham, president of United States, by Wilkes
Booth, 14 April; died...

Lorraine, Louis of Guise, cardinal of; by order of Henry
III. of France..

..29 July, 1846 Busa..12 Dec. 1878 .13 July, 1793

Mayo, Richard, earl of, gov. gen. of India; by Shere Ali,

a convict, in Andaman isles.... Mehemet Ali Pacha; by Albanians. Melikoff, gen. Loris; attempt (see Russia).. Michael, prince of Servia..

8 Feb. 1872 4 March, 1880 ...10 June, 1868 .23 Jan. 1570

...7 Sept. 1878

.24 Dec. 1800

Murray, James, earl of, regent of Scotland...
Napoleon I.; attempt, by infernal machine....
Napoleon III.; attempts, by Pianori, 28 April, 1855; by
Bellemarre, 8 Sept. 1855; by Orsini and others.. 14 Jan. 1858
Orange, William, prince of; by Balthasar Gerard.. 10 July, 1584
Orleans, Louis Valois, duke of; by Burgundians. 23 Nov. 1407
Parma, Ferdinand Charles III., duke of; 25 March; died

Paul, czar of Russia; by nobles...
Percival, Spencer, premier; by Bellingham..
Philip II. of Macedon; by Pausanias.
Prim, marshal; 28 Dec.; died..

Rossi, conte Pellegrino, Roman statesman..

27 March, 1854 .24 March, 1801

.11 May, 1812

.....B. C.

336

.30 Dec. 1870

15 Nov. 1848

William 1. of Prussia and Germany; attempts, by Oscar
Becker, 14 July, 1861; by Hödel, 11 May, 1878; by Dr.
Nobiling...
.2 June, 1878
William III. of England: see Assassination Plot....... .1695-6

Assay oF GOLD AND SILVER originated with the
bishop of Salisbury, a royal treasurer in the reign of
Henry I.-Du Cange. But certainly some species of
assay was practised as early as the Roman conquest.
Assay early established in England was regulated by
statutes, 1238, 1700, and 1705. Assay masters appointed
at Newcastle, 1701; Sheffield and Birmingham, 1773.
The laws respecting assay were amended in 1854 and
1855. The alloy of gold is silver and copper, that of
silver is copper.
Standard gold is 2 carats of alloy to
22 of fine gold. Standard silver is 18 dwts. of copper to
11 oz. 2 dwts. of fine silver; see Goldsmiths' Company
and Pyx.

Assaye (E. Indies). The British army, under gen. Arthur Wellesley (afterwards duke of Wellington), entered the Mahratta states on the south; took the fort of Ahmednuggur, 12 Aug.; and defeated Scindiah and the rajah of Berar at Assaye, 23 Sept. 1803. This was Wellesley's first great battle, in which he opposed 50,000 with only 4500 men. The enemy fled, leaving their artillery, etc.

Assembly of (130) DIVINES, held at Westminster, 1 July, 1643, convoked by order of parliament to consider the liturgy, government, and doctrines of the church. Two members were elected for each county. The presbyterian majority adopted the Scottish covenant, and

drew up the directory for public worship, a confession, and the catechisms now used by the church of Scotland. The last (1163d) meeting. was on 22 Feb. 1649; see Church of Scotland.

Assent, sce Royal Assent.

Assessed Taxes. By some the date is referred to Ethelbert, in 991; to Henry VIII. 1522; and to William III. 1689, when a land-tax was imposed; see Land Tax. The assessed taxes yielded in 1815 (the last year of the war), exclusively of the land-tax, 6,524,766., their highest amount. These imposts have varied in their nature and amount, according to the exigencies of the state. They were considerably advanced in 1797 and 1801 et seq., but reduced in 1816 and in subsequent years. An act for the repeal of certain assessed taxes was passed 16 & 17 Vict. c. 90, 20 Aug. 1853, explained and amended by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 1, 17 Feb. 1854.-Acts for the better securing and accounting for the Assessed and Income Taxes, 10 Aug. 1854; see Taxes and Income Tax. Changes were made in the assessed taxes, their time of collection, etc., by the Revenue Act, passed 24 June, 1869. Licenses for servants, dogs, and armorial bearings were also introduced. An act to provide for uniformity in the assessment of ratable property in the metropolis was passed 9 Aug. 1869. The "Court of General Assessment" first met 19 May, 1870. Amount received in the year ending 31 March, 1870, about 4,500,000l. Since then the assessed taxes include the land-tax and house duty only. Amount received, year 1871-2, about 2,330000; 1874-5, 2,440,000.; 1875-6, 2,496,000%; 1876-7, 2,532,000l.; 1877-8, 2,670,000l.; 1878-9, 2,720,000l.; 187980, 2,670,000%.

Assiento, a contract between the king of Spain and other powers for furnishing the Spanish dominions in America with negro slaves, began with the Flemings. By the treaty of Utrecht, 13 July, 1713, the British government engaged to furnish 4800 negroes annually to Spanish America for thirty years. The contract was renewed in 1748, but given up in 1750; see Guinea.

Assignats, a forced paper currency, ordered by the National Assembly of France to support public credit during the revolution, April, 1790. At one period, eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions of pounds sterling, of this paper were in circulation in France and its dependencies.-Alison. Assiguats were superseded by mandats in 1796.

Assize of BATTLE, see Appeal.

Assize OF BREAD, etc., see Bread and Wool.

Assize OF JERUSALEM, a valuable code of laws compiled under the direction of Godfrey of Bouillon, king of Jerusalem, in 1100.

Assize Courts (from assideo, I sit) are very ancient in England, and in old law-books are defined to be an assembly of knights and other substantial men, with the justice, to meet at a certain time and place: regulated by Magna Charta, 1215. The present justices of assize and Nisi Prius are derived from the statute of West minster, 13 Edw. I. 1284.—Coke ; Blackstone. "The king doth will that no lord, or other of the country, shall sit upon the bench with the justices to take assize in their sessions in the counties of England, upon great forfeiture to the king." 20 Rich. II. 1396.-Statutes, Brough Act. Assizes are general or special; general when the judges go their circuits, and special when a commission is issued to take cognizance of one or more causes; see Bloody As

size.

Associations, see British National Associations, Christian, etc.

Assumption, FEAST OF THE, 15 Aug. It is observed by the church of Rome in honor of the Virgin Mary, said to have been taken up to heaven in her corporeal form, body and spirit, on this day, A.D. 45, in her 75th year. The festival was instituted in the 7th century, and enjoined by the council of Mentz, 813.

Assurance, see Insurance.

Assyria, an Asiatic country between Mesopotamia | was about $250,000. The number of books in the library and Media, was the seat of the earliest recorded mon- is 200,000, of which scarcely any are duplicates, while all archy. Its history is mainly derived from Ctesias, an fiction, except that of the highest order, is excluded. early Greek historian of doubtful authenticity, Herodotus, The library is peculiarly rich in books of great value to and the Holy Scriptures. The discovery by Mr. (after scholars; and in the purchase of books, as well as in the wards sir Austin) Layard of the Ninevite antiquities, now rules of the library, the design is to maintain its high in the British Museum, and the deciphering of many an- character as a scholar's, not a popular, library. cient cuneiform inscriptions, by Grotefend, sir H. Rawlinson, and other scholars, have drawn much attention to the Assyrians. The chronologers Blair, Usher, Hales, and Clinton differ much in the dates they assign to events in Assyrian history.

Nimrod or Belus reigns..
.B.C. [2554 H. 2235 C.] 2245
"Asshur builded Nineveh " (Gen. x. 11)..
..about 2218
Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, and names his
capital Nineveh.
[2182 C.] 2060
Babylon taken by Ninus, who, having subdued the Ar
menians, Persians, Bactrians, and all Asia Minor, estab-
lishes what is properly the Assyrian monarchy, of which

Nineveh was the seat of empire. -Blair. [2233 C] 2059
2017

Ninyas, an infant, succeeds Ninus..
Semiramis, mother of Ninyas, usurps the government,

enlarges and embellishes Babylon...

She invades Libya, Ethiopia, and India...
She is put to death by her son Ninyas.

Ninyas put to death, and Arius reigns..
Reign of Aralius.

Belochus, the last king of the race of Ninus..

.[2130 C.] 2007
.Lenglet 1975

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1965

1927

1897
1446

1433
1421

840

820
777

770

744-740

He invades Israel, but departs without drawing a sword.
-Blair (2 Kings xv 19, 20).
Tiglath-pileser invades Syria, takes Damascus, and makes
great conquests.
Shalmaneser takes Samaria, transports the people, whom
he replaces by a colony of Cutheans and others, and
thus finishes the kingdom of Israel...

He retires from before Tyre, after a siege of five years.
Blair.

Sennacherib invades Judea, and his general, Rabshakeh,
besieges Jerusalem, when the angel of the Lord in one
night destroys 180,000 of his army. Isa. xxxvii....
Esar-haddon invades Judea.........

721

713

710 680

.625 or 621

Sarac (Sardanapalus II.) besieged, kills his wife and chil
dren, and burns himself in his palace..
Nineveh razed to the ground, and Assyria becomes a
Median province..

Assyria subdued by Alexander the Great..

It subsequently formed part of the kingdoms of Syria,
Parthia, and Persia.

605

332

It was conquered by the Turks...
..A.D. 1637
Explored by col. Chesney and the Euphrates exploring
expedition...
1835-37
Layard's discoveries published (see Nineveh)....... 1848-53
Mr. George Smith, of the British Museum, began to study
inscriptions, 1866; (received aid from proprietors of
Daily Telegraph), and started to explore Assyrian re-
mains, 20 June, 1873; worked in 1873-4; published
"Assyrian Discoveries".
March, 1875

Started to renew his explorations, Oct. 1875; died at
Aleppo...

Astor-place Riots, made by friends of Edwin Forrest to break up Mr. Macready's acting at the Astor Place Opera-house in New York, 10 May, 1849.

Astorga (N.W. Spain), the ancient Asturica Augusta, was taken by the French, 22 April, 1810, and treated with great severity.

Astoria, Oregon, at the mouth of the Columbia river, founded in 1810 by John Jacob Astor as a station for his fur trade. The station was made the subject of a picturesque descriptive work, entitled "Astoria," by Washington Irving, 1836. Irving had never visited the station, but wrote from documents furnished by John Jacob Astor, and from his recollection of another northwestern fur-trading post.

Astracan (S.E. Russia), a province acquired from the Mogul's empire in 1554; visited and settled by Peter the Great in 1722.

Astrolabe, an instrument for observing the stars, said to have been employed by Hipparchus about 130 B.C.; and by Ptolemy about A.D. 140. The modern astrolabe was described by Fabricius in 1513.

Astrology. Judicial astrology was cultivated by the Chaldæans, and transmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in vogue in Italy and France in the time of Catherine de' Medicis (married to Francis I. of France, 1533).-Hénault. It is said that Bede, 673– 735, was addicted to it; and Roger Bacon, 1214-92. Lord Burleigh is said to have calculated the nativity of Elizabeth, and she and other princes were dupes of Dee, the astrologer. It is stated that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting his projected escape from Carisbrook castle in 1647,-Ferguson. Astrological almanacs are still published in London.

The Astrological Society of Great Britain founded 19 Feb. 1379.
Astronomer-royal, see Greenwich.

Astronomy. The earliest astronomical observa-
tions were made at Babylon, it is said, about 2234 B.C.
The study was much advanced in Chaldæa under Nabo-
nassar; was known to the Chinese about 1100 B.C.; some
say many centuries before; see Eclipses, Planets, Comets,
Sun, Moon, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, Neptune, Mars, etc.
Lunar eclipses observed at Babylon, and recorded by
Ptolemy..
..about B. C. 720
Spherical form of the earth, and the true cause of lunar
eclipses, taught by Thales.
..about 600

Further discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the doc-
trine of celestial motions, and believed in the plurality
of habitable worlds; died...
Meton introduces the lunar solar cycle.

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19 Aug. 1876

The explorations resumed by Mr. Hormusd Rassam; see
Nineveh,

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Asteroids, see under Planets.

Astley's Amphitheatre, see under Theatres. Astor Library, NEW YORK. John Jacob Astor (born at Waldorf, near Heidelberg, 17 July, 1763; died in New York, 29 March, 1848) left by will $400,000 to establish "a public library in the city of New York." The library was opened 9 Jan. 1854, with about 80,000 volumes. In Jan. 1856, William B. Astor, son of the founder, gave the land to double the size of the building. In 1879 John Jacob Astor (the second of that name) gave the land and directed the erection of a second new | building, which is now complete. He also built a fine central vestibule, richly frescoed and ornamented with twenty-four classic busts in marble. The cost of the additional building and improvements thus provided for

Hipparchus, greatest of Greek astronomers, determines mean motion of sun and moon; discovers precession of equinoxes, etc.......

160-125

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The transit of Venus over the sun's disk first observed by Horrocks...

.24 Nov. 1639

Huyghens completes the discovery of Saturn's ring..... 1654
Cassini draws his meridian line, after Dante (see Bologna) 1655
The aberration of the light of the fixed stars discovered
by Horrebow....

Gregory invents a reflecting telescope..
Discoveries of Picard.

1659 1663

1669

.about 1670

66

1676

Charts of the moon constructed by Scheiner, Langrenus,

Hevelius, Riccioli, etc.

Discoveries of Römer on the velocity of light, and his ob

servation of Jupiter's satellites..

1675

Greenwich Observatory founded..

Motion of the sun round its own axis proved by Halley.. Newton's Principia" published; and the system, as now

taught, demonstrated..

1687

Catalogue of the stars made by Flamsteed.

Cassini's chart of the full moon executed.

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1688 1692

1705 1725

was elected bishop, 326. He firmly opposed the doc-
trines of Arius (who denied Christ's divinity), was sev-
eral times exiled, and died in 373.

Lumby, in "History of the Creeds" (1874), asserts that this
creed, beginning "Quicunque vult," was not composed by
Athanasius; that it is made up of two distinct parts, and
was originally written in Latin and put into its present
shape between 813 and 850; not connected with Athanasius's
name by any trustworthy authority before 809; set forth
first in Gaul, about 870; gradually extended into Italy,
Britain, etc.; accepted by the Greek church about 1200.
This creed asserts the procession of the Holy Ghost from the
Father and the Son; see Filioque.

Dr. Waterland's Critical History of this creed published 1723.
Much agitation against the general use of this creed has arisen
in the church of England among both clergy and laty,
1870-3.

1701 Modifications approved by several bishops were negatived by the lower house in convocation (62-7), early in May, 1872. The vote was rejected by the bishops, and the agitation continued.

1727

1767

John Harrison produces chronometers for determining
the longitude, 1735 et seq., and obtains the reward.... 1764
"Nautical Almanac" first published.
Celestial inequalities found by La Grange.
1780
Uranus and satellites discovered by Herschel (see Geor-
gium Sidus)..
.13 March, 1781
1796

"Mécanique Céleste," by La Place, published..
Royal Astronomical Society of London founded, 1820;
chartered..

Beer and Mädler's map of the moon published.
Lord Rosse's telescope constructed...
The planet Neptune discovered.

1831

.... 1834 1828-45

.23 Sept. 1846

1857

Bond photographs the moon (see Photography, Celestia). 1851 Hansen's table of the moon published at expense of the British government.. Trustees of the rev. Richard Sheepshanks present 10,000Z. stock to Trinity College, Cambridge, for promotion of the study of astronomy, meteorology, and magnetism. Spectrum analysis applied in astronomy (see Spectrum). 1861 Large photograph of the moon by Warren de la Rue.... 1863 Dr. Henry Draper, of New York, made the largest photo...about graph ever made of the moon. Spectra of the stars photographed by Dr. Henry Draper, of New York

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Two satellites of Mars discovered by prof. Asaph Hall, at Washington, U. S. ..11, 18 Aug. Remarkable results in photographing the nebula in Orion, and the tail of a comet, by Draper.... Asturias (Oviedo since 1833), N.W. Spain, an ancient principality. Here Pelayo collected the Gothic fugitives, about 713, founded a new kingdom, and by his victories checked Moorish conquest. For his successors, see Spain. The heir-apparent of the monarchy has borne the title "prince of Asturias" since 1388, when it was assumed by Henry, son of John I., king of Leon, on his marriage with a descendant of Peter of Castile. In 1808 the junta of Asturias began the organized resistance to the French usurpation.

Asylums, or Privileged PLACES, at first, were places of refuge for those who by accident or necessity had done things that rendered them obnoxious to the law. God commanded the Jews to build cities of refuge, 1451 B.C., Numb. xxv.-The posterity of Hercules are said to have built one at Athens, to protect themselves against such as their father had irritated. Cadmus is said to have built one at Thebes, 1490 B.C.; and Romulus one at Mount Palatine, 751 B.C.; see Sanctuaries.

"Atalanta" (formerly Juno), training-ship, left Bermuda on a trial voyage, under capt. Stirling, 31 Jan.

1880.

On board, 15 officers, and 265 petty officers, seamen, marines, and boys; never heard of again. Many merchant-vessels were wrecked during a terrific gale,

12-16 Feb. 1880. See Mansion-house Funds.

Ateliers Nationaux (National Workshops) were established by the French provisional government in Feb. 1848. They interfered greatly with private trade, as about 100,000 workmen threw themselves upon the government for labor and payment. The breaking-up, of the system led to the fearful conflicts in June following; and the system was abolished in July.

Athanasian Creed. Athanasius, of Alexandria,

In a letter to the earl of Shaftesbury, 22 July, 1872, the archbishops of Canterbury and York expressed their hope of devising a way for rendering the reading of the creed during public worship not compulsory.

Great meeting of laity at St. James's Hall in defence of the creed, 31 Jan. 1873.

Atheism (from the Greek a, without, 0ɛóc, God; see Psa. xiv. 1). It was professed by Epicurus, Lucretius, and other philosophers. Spinoza was the defender of a similar doctrine (1632-77). Lucilio Vanini publicly taught atheism in France, and was condemned to be burned at Toulouse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, openly confessed atheism, and had upwards of a thousand disciples in Germany about 1674; he travelled to make proselytes, and his followers were called Conscienciaries, because they held that there is no other deity than conscience. "Though a small draught of philosophy may lead a man into atheism, a deep draught will certainly bring him back again to the belief of a God."-Lord Bacon. Atheism was the ruling doctrine of the French republic, 1794 till 1804; see Materialism. Athenæa were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honor of Minerva. One was called Panathenæa, the other Chalcea; they are said to have been instituted by Erechtheus or Orpheus, 1397 or 1495 B.C.; and revived by Theseus, who caused them to be observed by all the Athenians, the first every fifth year, 1234 B.C.---Plutarch.

Athenæum, a place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and philosophers recited their compositions. That of Rome, of great beauty, was erected by the emperor Adrian, 125.-The ATHENEUM CLUB of London was formed in 1823, for the association of persons of scientific and literary attainments, and artists, and noblemen and gentlemen, patrons of learning, etc., by the earls of Liverpool and Aberdeen, the marquess of Lansdowne, Dr. T. Young, Moore, Davy, Scott, Mackintosh, Faraday, Croker, Chantrey, Lawrence, and seven future premiers. The club-house was erected in 1829-30 on the site of the late Carlton palace; it is of Grecian architecture, and the frieze is an exact copy of the Panathenaic procession which formed the frieze of the l'arthenon.-The Liverpool Athenæum was opened 1 Jan. 1799.-At Manchester, Bristol, and many other places, buildings under this name, and for a like purpose, have been founded.-The Boston Athenæum, Boston, Mass., originated in the Anthology Club, and dates from 1804. It was incorporated 1807. It is an association of private finest in the United States, are practically open to persons, but its art gallery and its library, one of the scholars and students not members of the society. The Athenæum, a weekly literary and scientific journal, first appeared in 1828; see Trials, 1875.

Athenry (Galway). Near here the Irish were totally defeated, and a gallant young chief, Feidlim O'Connor, slain 10 Aug. 1816.

Athens, the capital of ancient Attica and of modern Greece. The first sovereign mentioned is Ogyges, who reigned in Boeotia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. Tradition states that in his reign (about 1764 B.C.) a deluge laid waste the country, which so remained till the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrops and a colony,

1487

sybulus...

Socrates (aged 70) put to death...
The Corinthian war begins...

....B.C.

Conon rebuilds the long walls and fortifies the Piræus..
Plato founds the Academy.
War against Sparta..

403

399

395

393

388 378

The Lacedæmonian fleet defeated at Naxus by Chabrias 376
General peace..

Macedon

by whom the land was repeopled, and twelve cities | Rule of the thirty tyrants, who are overthrown by Thrafounded, 1556 B.C. The city, said to have been first called Cecropia, was afterwards named Athens in honor of Minerva (Athene), her worship having been introduced by Erechtheus, 1383 B.C. Athens was ruled by seventeen successive kings (487 years), by thirteen perpetual archons (316 years), seven decennial archons (70 years), and lastly by annual archons (760 years). It attained great power, and no other city has had, in a short space of time, so great a number of illustrious citizens. The ancients called Athens Astu, the city, by eminence, and one of the eyes of Greece; see Greece. Arrival of Cecrops [1558 Hales, 1433 Clinton) Usher..B.c. 1556 The Areopagus established. Deucalion arrives in Attica. Reign of Amphictyon.... The Panathenæan Games.... Erichthonius reigns...

1507 1502 .[1499 H.] 1497 .[1481 H.] 1495

Philip, king of Macedon, opposes the Athenians; see
Second sacred (or social) war...
First Philippic of Demosthenes.
Peace with Macedon...

Battle of Cheronæa (which see); the Athenians and The-
bans defeated by Philip...
.7 Aug.
Philip assassinated by Pausanias.
Athens submits to Alexander, who spares the orators...
Death of Alexander..

371

359 .357-355

352

346

338

336

335

323

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Athens suffered much during the War of Independence, 1821-7. Taken by the Turks (see Greece).....17 May, 1827 Becomes the capital of the kingdom of modern Greece.. 1833 Population, 41,298, 1861; 44,510, 1871; 68,677.......... 1879 Atherton Gag. In order to prevent the discus489 sion of slavery in the United States House of Repre483 sentatives, C. G. Atherton, of New Hampshire, introduced a resolution, which was passed 11 Dec. 1838, that 478 all petitions and papers relating to that subject should 471 be laid on the table without being debated, printed, or 469 referred." The rule was rescinded in 1845.

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Athlone, Roscommon, Ireland, was burned during the civil war in 1641. After the battle of the Boyne, colonel R. Grace held Athlone for James II. against a besieging army, but fell when it was taken by assault by Ginckel, 30 June, 1691; sec Aughrim.

Atlanta Campaign (6 May-2 Sept. 1864). This 445 campaign, in which gens. Sherman and Johnston were antagonists, until the latter was relieved by Hood, is strategically one of the most interesting of the American civil war. Sherman advanced (6 May) with 98,000 men against Johnston, who was then posted and strongly fortified at Dalton with an army about half as large as that opposing him. The following are the important events of the campaign in their chronological order: Sherman demonstrated against Rocky Face Ridge (Buzzard's Roost), and sent M Pherson's army (over 20,000 strong) to gain Resaca and cut off Johnston's retreat (6 May). M Pherson failing, Sherman followed him with his whole army, and attacked Johnston, who had fallen back to Resaca. Johnston worsted. 14, 15 May, 1864 Johnston retreated to Cassville, 15-16 May; and finally across the Etowah.. .20 May, Jeff. C. Davis captured Rome. .17 May, Sherman crossed the Etowah (23 May) and moved on Dallas, and, finding Johnston concentrated at New Hope Church, an indecisive battle followed...25 May, Howard's corps assailed Cleburne and was repulsed, 27 May, Confederate attack on M'Pherson repulsed......28 May,

Pericles obtains the government.

Pericles subdues Samos.

Satirical comedies prohibited at Athens.

Alliance between Athens and Corcyra, then at war with Corinth, 433; leads to the Peloponnesian war (lasted 27 years); it began..

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Sherman all the while (24 May-4 June) deploying up to
the Confederate lines, left Jolinston in his intrench-
ments, established himself at Ackworth, on the rail-
road, and made Allatoona Pass a fortified depot, 6 June, 1864
Johnston occupied Kenesaw, Lost, and Pine mountains,
covering Marietta on the north; and Sherman, having
moved to Big Shanty, brought his armies close up to
Kenesaw.
..11 June,
14 June,

Gen. Polk killed on Pine Mountain.
Sherman's unsuccessful assault on Kenesaw; Harker
killed....

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27 June, Johnston, flanked, abandoned Kenesaw. ...2 July, Schofield obtained a foothold south of the Chattahoochee (7 July); M'Pherson followed; Johnston crossed the Chattahoochee, and took up a position on Peachtree creek ...9 July, Rousseau started out from Decatur, Alabama, upon his raid against the West Point railroad (10 July); crossed the Coosa, and defeated Clanton (13 July); struck the railroad, destroyed a portion of it, and returned to Marietta. 22 July, Sherman crossed the Chattahoochee with Thomas's army. Johnston relieved by Hood .17 July, Battle of Peach-tree creek. The Confederates gained a partial success at first, but the national forces maintained their position.. 20 July, Battle of Decatur. Hood attacked Sherman's left. M'Pherson killed; also the Confederate gen. W. H. T. Walker. The Confederates, successful at first, finally repulsed.... 22 July, Army of Tennessee (under Howard) moved from Decatur to the northwest of Atlanta. Hooker resigned. 27 July, Hood attacked Howard in his new position and was repulsed. .....28 July Sherman extended his lines southward.. 28 July-10 Aug. Battle of Jonesborough (south of Atlanta). Hardee attacked Sherman and was repulsed. Capture of Jonesborough.. .31 Aug., 1 Sept. Atlanta evacuated by Hood.. .2 Sept. Atlantic Telegraph, see Electric Telegraph, under Electricity.

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Atmolysis, a method of separating the constituent gases of a compound gas (such as atmospheric air) by causing it to pass through a vessel of porous material (such as graphite); first made known in Aug. 1863, by the discoverer, the late professor T. Graham, F.R.S., master of the mint.

Atmosphere, see Air.

Atmospheric Railways. The idea of producing motion by atmospheric pressure was conceived by Papin, the French engineer, about 1680. Experiments were made on a line of rail, laid down across Wormwood Scrubs, London, between Shepherd's Bush and the Great Western railroad, to test the efficacy of atmospheric tubes, the working of the air-pump, and speed of carriages upon this new principle on railroads in June, 1840, and then tried for a short time on a line between Croydon and London, 1845. Atmospheric pressure was also tried and abandoned in 1848, on the South Devon line. An atmospheric railway was commenced between Dalkey and Killiney, in the vicinity of Dublin, in Sept. 1843; opened 29 March, 1844; discontinued in 1855. A similar railway was proposed to be laid down in the streets of London by Mr. T. W. Rammell in 1857. Mr. Rammell's Pneumatic Railway was put in action successfully at the Crystal Palace on 27 Aug. 1864, and following days. An act for a pneumatic railway between the Waterloo railway station and Whitehall was passed in July, 1865. Atmospheric pressure was proposed for a submarine railway from Dover to Calais in 1869; see Pneumatic Despatch.

Atomic Theory, in chemistry, deals with the indivisible particles of all substances. The somewhat incoherent labors of his predecessors (such as Wenzel, in 1777) were reduced by John Dalton to four laws of combining proportion, which have received the name of "Atomic Theory." His "Chemical Philosophy," containing the exposition of his views, appeared in 1808. Dr. C. Daubeny's work on the Atomic Theory was published in 1850. In his standard of atomic weights Dalton takes hydrogen as 1. Berzelius, who commenced his elaborate researches on the subject in 1848, adopts oxygen as 100. The former standard is used in this country, the latter on the continent. The theory is accepted by some and rejected by other chemists. In 1855 Hinrichs pro

pounded a new hypothetical science, Atomechanics, in which pantogen, composed of panatoms, is regarded as the primary chemical principle.

Atoms.

Democritus (about 400 B.C.) held that the only existing things are innumerable indestructible atoms, varying in form, and combined in obedience to mechanical laws, and that the soul consists of free, smooth, round atoms, like those of fire; and that nothing happens by chance. His philosophy was adopted by Epicurus (about 306 B.C.), whose doctrines are luminously expounded by Lucretius in his great poem De Rerum Naturâ" (On the Nature of Things), 57 B.C. The atomic philosophy, in a modified form, was recognized by Gassendi, who died A.D. 1655.

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Atrebates, a Belgic people, subdued by Cæsar, 57 B.C.; see Artois.

Attainder, ACTS OF, whereby a person not only forfeited his land, but his blood was attainted, have been numerous. Two witnesses in cases of high-treason are necessary where corruption of blood is incurred, unless the party accused shall confess, or stand mute, 7 & 8 Will. III. 1694-5.-Blackstone. The attainder of lord Russell, who was beheaded in Lincoln's-inn-fields, 21 July, 1683, was reversed under William, in 1689. The rolls and records of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of James II. were cancelled and publicly burned, 2 Oct. 1695. Among the last acts reversed was the attaint of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (who was implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), 1 July, 1819. In 1814 and 1833 the severity of attainders was mitigated. Several attainders reversed about 1827, and one in 1853 (the earl of Perth).

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Attorney (from tour, turn), a person qualified to act for another at law. The number in Edward III.'s reign was under 400 for the whole kingdom. In the 32d of Henry VI. 1454, a law reduced the practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk from eighty to fourteen, and restricted their increase. The number of attorneys practising in the United Kingdom was said to be 13,824 (1872). The qualifications and practice of attorneys and solicitors are now regulated by acts passed in 1843, 1860, 1870, and 1874. By the Supreme Judicature Act all attorneys styled solicitors since Nov. 1875; see Solicitors.

Attorney-general, a law officer of the crown, appointed by letters-patent. He has to exhibit informations and prosecute for the king in matters criminal, and to file bills in exchequer for any claims concerning the crown in inheritance or profit. Others may bring bills against the king's attorney. The first attorneygeneral was William Bonneville, 1277. 1660. Sir Jeffrey Palmer. 1670. Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards earl of Nottingham. 1673. Sir Francis North, kut., afterwards lord Guildford. 1679. Sir Cresvel Levinz, or Levinge, knt. 1681. Sir Robert Sawyer, knt. 1687. Sir Thomas Powis, knt. 1689. Henry Pollexfen, esq.

1675. Sir William Jones.

Sir George Treby, knt.

1692. Sir John Summers, knt., afterwards lord Somers. 1693. Edward Ward, esq. 1695. Sir Thomas Trevor, knt., afterwards lord Trevor. 1701. Edward Northey, esq. 1707. Sir Simon Harcourt, knt. 1708. Sir James Montagu, knt. 1710. Sir Simon Harcourt, again; afterwards lord Harcourt. Sir Edward Northey, knt. 1718. Nicholas Lechmere, esq., afterwards lord Lechmere. 1720. Sir Robert Raymond, afterwards lord Raymond.

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