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[Russian general-in-chief in Bulgaria, grand-duke Nicholas; in Armenia, grand-duke Michael. Turkish generals: Abdul-Kerim in Europe; Mukhtar Pacha in Asia Minor.]

Russians defeated at Tchuruk Sou, near Batoum,

26 April, 1877

The Russians, under the grand-duke Michael and Loris Melikoff, advance into Armenia, defeat Turks, and occupy Bayazid (deserted) .29, 30 April, The Turks stop the passage of the Danube, and blockade the Black Sea.. .3 May, The earl of Derby replies to the Russian circular; he refers to the treaty of 1856 as broken; does not consider that the war will benefit the Christians, and asserts that Russia has separated herself from European concert; the British government gives neither concurrence nor approval to the war.. .1 May, Kalafat occupied by Roumanians. ...3 May, Russians defeated in attacking Batoum.. ......4 May, The Lufti Djelil, Turkish monitor, with 300 men, blown up near Ibraila, or Braila, on the Danube (said to be by Russian shells).. ....11 May, Much artillery-firing down the river ..May, Sukhum Khaleh, Russian fortress in the Caucasus, captured by Turks. 14 May,

Ardahan, near Kars, Armenia, stormed by Melikoff, 17 May, Insurrection in the Caucasus supported by the sultan, 18 May et seq.

Explosion of Turkish monitor Dar-Matoin, by lieuts. T. Daubassoff and Sheshlakoff, with torpedoes...26 May, Neutrality of the Suez Canal assured; correspondence, May-June, .3 June, 6 June, Turks defeated at Tahir, or Taghir, Armenia.... 16 June, Turks victors at Zewin Dooz, Eshek Khalian, Delibaba, and other places; Russians retreating.. ...20 June, Turks successful in Montenegro: country reported subdued.. .12-20 June, Russians cross Lower Danube by bridges at Galatz and Braila; six hours' conflict ensues; Turks retire, 22 June; Russians occupy Matchin, 23 June; and Hirsova, 25, 26 June, The grand-duke Nicholas crosses the Danube at Simnitza, by 208 pontoons, and enters Bulgaria; the Turks retire after severe conflicts; 289 Russians said to be killed 27 June, The czar, in his proclamation to Bulgarians, encourages Christians and warns Mahometans. ...28 June, The Simnitza bridge destroyed by a storm or by Turks, about 30 June, .3 July, ..about 5 July,

Kars invested by Russians

The czar arrives at Plojesto (Ployesto) in Roumania,

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The British fleet arrives at Besika bay.
Biela, Bulgaria, taken by Russians..
Plevna, Bulgaria, occupied by Russians.
Tirnova, ancient capital of Bulgaria, captured by Rus-
sians under gen. Gourko..
Bayazid reoccupied by Turks..

6 July,

....6, 7 July,

12 July,

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2 Jan. 1856 .11 Jan.

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Report of sir John M Neill and col. Tulloch on state of the army before Sebastopol, published ....5 Feb. Peace conferences open at Paris; an armistice till 31 March agreed on..

25 Feb.

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Suspension of hostilities.

.29 Feb. ..30 March,

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Russians compelled to retire from Kars by Mukhtar Pacha... .13 July, The invasion of Armenia considered a failure......July, Gourko crosses the Balkans and enters Roumelia, 13 July (this movement censured); several skirmishes, 14, 15, 20 July, Nicopolis (Nikopol) surrenders (after severe conflicts, 12-14 July); capture of 2 pachas, 6000 men, 2 monitors, and 40 guns... ......15, 16 July, The Turkish commander, Abdul-Kerim, replaced by Mehemet Ali (Jules Détroit, of French extraction); Russians retreating.... ..July, Suleiman Pacha brought from Montenegro to the Schipka .about 21 July,

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Treaty of peace concluded at Paris.
Proclamation of peace in the Crimea, 2 April; in London,
The Crimea evacuated

29 April, .9 July,* Russo-Turkish War, 1877. For the insurrections, Servian war, and the negotiations, see Turkey. The czar addresses the army near Kischenoff, saying that "he has done everything in his power to avoid war, and patience is exhausted;" the Russian embassy quits Constantinople. ..23 April, 1877 War declared; the czar's manifesto says that he is compelled, by the haughty obstinacy of the Porte, to proceed to more decisive acts; a justificatory circular to foreign powers sent out by prince Gortschakoff; the Russians enter the Turkish dominions in Roumania and Armenia.... 24 April, The sultan's circular protests against the war, and refers to his reforms and the treaty of Paris.......25 April,

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The Roumanian army joins the Russians..... .9 Aug. Severe conflicts between Russians and Suleiman Pasha; the Turks eventually victors: Eski Saghra and Yeni Sagra, July; Kezanlik and Kalofer.....30 July et seq. Russians under Gourko expelled from Roumelia; retreat to Schipka passes... ..about 11 Aug. Russians in the Schipka passes relieved by Radetzky, 21 Aug. Russians defeated at Kara Silar, near Osman Bazar, 14 Aug.; in the valley of the Lom, by Mehemet Ali, about 22-24 Aug. Russians defeated by Mukhtar Pacha at Kurukdara, or Kizil Tepé, between Kars and Alexandropol, 24, 25 Aug. Desperate fruitless attempts of Suleiman Pacha to gain the Schipka Pass held by Gourko and Radetzky; great slaughter 20, 27 Aug. Severe twelve hours' battle in the valley of the Lom, near Szedina; Karahassankoi taken and retaken six times; Russians (under the czarowitch) retire in good order.. ..30 Aug. Prince Charles with Roumanians crosses the Danube, about 31 Aug.

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Further successes of Mehemet Ali on the Lom at Katzelevo, Ablava, etc.... ..4 Sept. 1877 Lovatz or Luftcha (important) captured by Prince Imeritinsky and Russians after a sharp conflict...3 Sept. Niksich (left by Turks) captured by Montenegrins,

7 Sept.
Sanguinary conflicts at Plevna, greatly strengthened by
Osman Pacha; artillery duel...
.7-10 Sept.
Fierce assault by Russians and Roumanians; they gain
the strong Gravitza redoubt (with others, which are
retaken); the czar present; Russian loss about 20,000,
11, 12 Sept.
Fort St. Nicholas in Schipka Pass taken by Suleiman
Pacha and quickly lost; much bloodshed.....17 Sept.
Mehemet Ali repulsed in his attack on positions at
Tchercovna, fifteen miles from Biela.... .21 Sept.
Siege of Plevna; Chefket Pacha enters with reinforce-
ments after several skirmishes...
.22 Sept.
Montenegrin successes continued.
....Sept.
Battles of the Yagni; severe conflicts; Russians re-
pulsed near Ardahan, Asia..... .about 27, 30 Sept.
Russian losses, killed, wounded, and missing, 47,400 re.
ported.
..... up to 20 Sept.
Mehemet Ali retires to Kara Lom........about 25 Sept.
Gen. Todleben made chief of staff before Plevna. 28 Sept.
Mehemet Ali replaced by Suleiman Pacha; Raouf Pacha
sent to Schipka..
.2, 3 Oct.
Battles near Kars; army of grand-duke Michael attacks
Turks under Mukhtar Pacha; severely defeated. 2-4 Oct.
Turkish monitor in the Danube exploded by torpedoes,
8 Oct.
Relief and supplies received by Turks at Plevna,
about 9 Oct.
Battle of Aladja Dagh before Kars; Russians, under grand-
duke Michael, and generals Loris Melikoff, Lazareff,
and Heimann, totally defeat Ahmed Mukhtar, taking
10,000 prisoners.
.14, 15 Oct.

Gravitza battery, near Plevna, captured by Roumanians,
is quickly retaken.
. 19, 20 Oct.
Suleiman and his army said to be retreating from Kadi-
koi to Rasgrad...
.22 Oct.
Battle at Gornij Dubnik, near Plevna; Russians under
Gourko said to be victorious; losses about equal (2500),
24 Oct.

Russians said to be defeated near Kara Ourgan, Armenia,
24 Oct.
Battle of Sofia Road, near Plevna; Turkish position at
Teliche captured...
...28 Oct.
Mukhtar Pacha defeated by Heimann and Tergukasoff at
Deve-Boyun, Armenia, after nine hours' conflict. 4 Nov.
Russians severely defeated at Azizi, before Erzeroum, by
Mukhtar Pacha..
.....9 Nov.

Change in Turkish generals; Suleiman ordered to com-
mand the army of Roumelia, replaced by Azli Pasha;
Mehemet Ali organizes army to relieve Plevna,

66

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early in Nov. 12 Nov. 15 Nov.

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Russian attack on Plevna repulsed Turks thrice repulsed near Plevna. Kars taken by storm; the Russians climbed steep rocks; fierce conflict from 8 P.M. to 8 A.M.; 300 guns and 10,000 prisoners taken; about 5000 Turks killed and wounded; Russian loss about 2500; the grand - duke Michael present. ..17, 18 Nov. Russians said to be severely repulsed at Orchanie, 16 Nov. Plevna said to be thoroughly invested (30 miles round, with 120,000 men)... .... Nov. Osman Pacha, invited to surrender at Plevna, refuses, about 16 Nov. Rahova on the Danube taken by Roumanians...21 Nov. Entrepol (fortified) near Plevna taken by Russians,

24 Nov. Indecisive fighting in the valley of the Lom between the czarowitch and Mehemet Ali; Russians said to be defeated. ...30 Nov. Turks capture Elena with guns and prisoners, after sharp conflict.. ....4 Dec. Skirmishing on the Lom.. .4-6 Dec. Osman Pacha endeavors to break out of Plevna, about 7 P.M. 9 Dec.; six hours' fierce conflict; surrounded; unconditional surrender; said to be 30,000 prisoners, 128 officers, 100 guns; great slaughter both sides. 10 Dec. The Servians declare war against Turkey, 12 Dec.; cross the frontier and capture villages.. ......15 Dec. et seq. Turkish circular note to the great powers, requesting mediation, 12 Dec.; merely acknowledged, action declined.. .about 12 Dec. Dec. Montenegrins successful.

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Alleged Russian losses, 80,435 men; Turkish many more, and 80,000 prisoners. .Dec. 1877 Mukhtar Pacha recalled to Constantinople, about 29 Dec. The sultan requests mediation of England; the British government only convey to Russia the sultan's desire to make peace; Russia declines mediation. 26-31 Dec. Servians advancing successfully... ....end of Dec. Gourko crosses the Balkans and advances on Sofia; Turks defeated in an engagement......about 31 Dec. Col. Baker gallantly protects the retreating Turkish army, defeating the Russians... 1 Jan. 1878 Sofia taken by Russians after an engagement.....3 Jan. Russians said to be defeated near Erzeroum. about 5 Jan. Servians defeated; Kurschumli reoccupied by Turks,

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6, 7 Jan. Gen. Radetzky crosses the Balkans; the Trojan pass taken about 9 Jan.; the Turkish army (about 32,000) and cannon taken by Skobeleff and Radetzky, after conflicts, 8, 9, 10 Jan. (see Senova); Gourko advances towards Adrianople.. .......11 Jan. Nisch taken by the Servians; Antivari by the Montenegrins. ...about 10 Jan. Russians advance successfully; Turkish envoys proceed to treat for peace.. ...about 16-18 Jan. Gourko advances towards Philippopolis; totally defeats Suleiman Pacha, who retreats to the sea, losing many prisoners and many cannon.. ..16, 17 Jan. Adrjanople abandoned; occupied by Russians. 19, 20 Jan. Suleiman with remains of his army at Karala on the gean transporting his troops.. Servians occupy nearly all Old Servia... Russian attack on Batoum defeated.. After much delay, an armistice signed at Adrianople, Russian losses announced-89,879 men.. Continued advance of Russians towards Constantinople; great panic; flight of many Turks; many deaths and great sufferings.. ..Jan. Feb. Part of British fleet ordered to Constantinople to protect British life and property, 8 Feb.; enters Dardanelles without permission of the Porte.. ..13 Feb. ..17-21 Feb. .20 Feb. Treaty of peace signed at San Stefano (see Stefano), 3 March; ratified at St. Petersburg. .17 March, The war lasted 322 days.. .....12 April, 1877, to 3 March, Long negotiation respecting a European congress, March-May, Grand-duke Nicholas in Roumelia replaced by gen. Todleben, who assumes command.. ..30 April, Conference at Berlin, meets 13 June; treaty signed (see Berlin), 13 July; ratified.. ....3 Aug.

Erzeroum evacuated by Turks. Rustchuk occupied by Russians.

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40,000 Russians sailed for home.. Definitive treaty of peace with Turkey signed at Constantinople.. ..8 Feb. 1879

Estimated cost of the war to Russia, 120,000,000Z.

Rustchuk, Turkish town on the Danube, one of the "quadrilateral" fortresses lost to Turkey with Bulgaria by treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 1878.

Ruthenium, a rare metal, discovered in the ore of platinum by M. Claus in 1845.

Rutherfurd's Act, LORD (13 and 14 Vict. c. 36), for simplifying law proceedings in Scotland, passed 1850. Ruthven, RAID OF, a term applied to the seizure of the person of James VI. of Scotland by William Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, and other nobles, in 1582, to compel the king to dismiss his favorites, Arran and Lennox. Ostensibly for this, Gowrie was judicially put to death by his two opponents in 1584.

Rutland, STATUTE OF, 10 or 12 Edw. I. 1282 or

1284.

Rye-house Plot, a plot (some think pretended) to secure the succession of the duke of Monmouth to the throne in preference to the duke of York (afterwards James II.), a Roman Catholic. Some of the conspirators are said to have projected the assassination of the king, Charles II., and his brother. This design is said to have been frustrated by the king's house at Newmarket accidentally taking fire, which hastened the royal party away eight days before the plot was to take effect, 22 March, 1683; see Newmarket. The plot was discovered 12 June following. Lord William Russell on 21 July, and Algernon Sidney on 7 Dec. following, suffered death for being concerned in this conspiracy. The name was derived from the conspirators' place of meeting, the Rye-house at Broxbourne, Hertfordshire.

Ryswick (Holland), where the celebrated peace | Holland, signed, by their representatives, 20 Sept., and was concluded between England, France, Spain, and by the emperor of Germany, 30 Oct. 1697.

S.

Saalfield (Saxony, N. Germany). Here the Prus- | was founded by Ludwig Hacker between 1740 and 1747 sians, under prince Louis of Prussia, were defeated and their leader slain by the French under Lannes, 10 Oct. 1806.

Saarbrück, the Roman Augusti Muri, or Sara pons, an open town on the left bank of the Saar, in Rhenish Prussia, founded in the tenth century, long subject to the bishops of Metz; afterwards ruled by counts (about 1237), and by the house of Nassau about 1380. It was captured by the French and retaken by the Germans 1676, reunited to France 1794-1814, and ceded to Prussia 1815. On 2 Aug. 1870, it was bombarded by the French under Frossard (between 11 and 1 in the daytime), and the Prussians in small force were dislodged, and the town occupied by the French general Bataille. The mitrailleuses were said to be very effective. The emperor Napoleon, who was present with his son, said in a telegram to the empress, "Louis has gone through his baptism of fire. He has not been in the least startled. We stood in the foremost rank, and the rifle-balls were dropping at our feet, and Louis picked up one that fell near him. His bearing was such as to draw tears from the soldiers' eyes." On 6 Aug. the Prussian generals Goeben and Von Steinmetz, with the first army, recaptured Saarbrück, after a sanguinary conflict at the village of Spicheren. The heights taken by the French on the 2d are in Germany, those taken by the Germans on the 6th are in France, and both battles were fought between Saarbrück and the town of Forbach, which was captured, and has given a name to the second conflict. The loss was great on both sides. The French general François was killed, and the 2d corps under Frossard nearly destroyed. The French retreated to Metz. They were greatly superior in numbers at the beginning of the fight, but were badly commanded.

at Ephrata, Lancaster county, Pa., among the German Seventh-day Baptists there. The school-room was used as a hospital after the battle of Brandywine, fought in 1777. This event occasioned the breaking-up of the schools, about five years before the first Sunday-school was instituted in England, at Gloucester, by Robert Raikes, about 1872; see Sunday-schools.

Sabbatical Year: a Jewish institution, 1491 B.C., Exod. xxiii. During every seventh year the very ground had rest, and was not tilled; and every fortyninth year all debts were forgiven, slaves set at liberty, and estates, etc., that were before sold or mortgaged, returned to their original families, etc.

Sabellianism, from Sabellius (of Ptolemais, in Egypt), who flourished in the third century, and who taught that there was but one person in the Godhead, the other persons of the Trinity being but different names of the same person. This doctrine was condemned at a council at Rome, 260.

Sabines, from whom the Romans, under Romulus, took away their daughters by force, having invited them to some public sports or shows on purpose. When the Sabines determined to revenge this affront, the women became mediators to their fathers in behalf of their husbands, the Romans, and a lasting peace was made between them, 750 B.C. After many conflicts the Sabines became a part of the Roman people, about 266 B.C. One of the ecclesiastical provinces is still called Terra Sabina; chief town, Magliano.

Saccharimeter, an instrument for determining the amount of sugar in solutions. Soleil, an optician of Paris, in 1847 made use of rotary polarized light for this purpose in a saccharimeter, since improved by Dubosc. Sacheverel Riots, see Riots, 1710.

Sackett's Harbor, DEFENCE OF. A British force attacked Sackett's Harbor, Lake Ontario, 29 May, 1813, and were repulsed.

Sabbatarians. Traces exist of Sabbatarii, or Sabbathaires, among the sects of the sixteenth century on the continent. Upon the publication of the "Book of Sports" in 1618, a violent controversy arose among EngSacrament (from sacramentum, an oath, obligalish divines on two points: first, whether the Sabbath tion; also mystery). The Christian sacraments are of the fourth commandment was in force among Chris- baptism and the Lord's supper. The council of Trent, tians; and, secondly, whether, and on what ground, the in 1547, affirmed the doctrine of the schoolmen that there first day of the week was entitled to be distinguished are seven sacraments: baptism, the Lord's supper, conand observed as "the Sabbath." In 1628, Theophilus firmation, penance, holy orders, matrimony, and extreme Brabourne, a clergyman, published the first work in fa-unction. The name was given to the Lord's supper by vor of the seventh day, or Saturday, as the true Chris- the Latin fathers. The wine was laid aside, and comtian Sabbath. He and several others suffered great munion by the laity under one form alone, that of bread, persecution for this opinion; but after the restoration took its rise in the West, under pope Urban II., 1096.— there were three or four congregations observing the M. de Marca. Communion in one kind only was aulast day of the week for public worship in London, and thoritatively sanctioned by the council of Constance in seven or eight in the country parts of England. In 1851 1414.-Dr. Hook. Henry VII. of Germany was poisoned there were three Sabbatarian or Seventh-day Baptist by a priest in the consecrated wafer, 24 Aug. 1313. The congregations in England; but in America (especially sacramental wine was poisoned by the grave-digger of in the New England states) they are more numerous. the church at Zurich, by which sacrilegious deed a Joseph Davis suffered imprisonment in 1670. He and number of persons lost their lives, 4 Sept. 1776. In 1614 his son bequeathed property to maintain the sect; and members of both houses of parliament were ordered to litigation respecting its disposal was settled by vice- take the sacrament, as a guard against the introduction chancellor Stuart in conformity with their intentions in of Roman Catholics. In 1673 the Test act was passed; June, 1870. Very few Sabbatarians then remained. repealed in 1828; see Transubstantiation. "Society of the Blessed Sacrament" (English churchmen), London, founded 1860; "Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament," founded 1862; the two united, 1867.

Sabbath: ordained by God, Gen. ii.; Exod. xx. 8; Isa. lviii. 13. Jews observe the seventh day in commemoration of the creation of the world, and of their redemption from the bondage of the Egyptians; Christians observe the first day of the week in commemoration of the resurrection of Christ from the dead, and the redemption of men; see Sunday.

Sabbath-schools. The first "Sabbath school" |

Sacramento, ST., a Portuguese settlement in South America, claimed by Spain in 1680, but relinquished in 1713; several times seized; ceded in 1777; acquired by Brazil in 1825.

Sacred Band, see Thebes.

Sacred Books of the East. The publication of translations of the sacred books of the religion of the Brahmins, Buddhists, and Mahometans, and of the followers of Khung-fu-tze and Lao-tze, edited by professor Max Müller, began in 1879. Eight volumes have been published, 1881.

Sacred Harmonic Society, see Music.

Sacred Heart of Jesus, a form of devotion said to have been instituted in England in the seventeenth century, and much promoted by Marguerite Marie Alacoque, an enthusiastic French nun, who asserted that Christ had appeared to her, and taken out her heart, placed it in his own, glowing in flame, and then returned it. She died in 1690.

1765

Her book, "Dévotion au Cœur de Jésus," published in
1698, much advocated by father Joseph Gallifet about
1726; and introduced into France by request......
A pilgrimage from England, specially blessed by the
pope, and headed by the duke of Norfolk, went to the
shrine of Marguerite at Paray-le-Monial, and returned
The R. C. diocese of Salford dedicated to the Sacred
Heart, 4 Sept. 1873; and a church at Montmartre, near
Paris, founded for the same purpose. 16 June, 1875
The pope dedicated the universal church to "the Sacred
Heart"..
...15 June, 66

1-6 Sept. 1873

Sacred Wars. I. Declared by the Amphictyons

against Cirrha, near Delphi, for robbery and outrage to the visitors to the oracle, 595 B.C. Cirrha was razed to the ground, 586. II. Between the Phocians and Delphians for the possession of the temple at Delphi, 448, 447. III. The Phocians, on being fined for cultivating the sacred lands, seized the temple, 357. They were conquered by Philip of Macedon, and their cities depopulated, 346; see Crusades.

Sadowa, see Königgratz.

Safes. A National Safe Company, London, opened vaults for storage of valuables, 1876.

Safety-lamp. One was invented in 1815 by sir Humphry Davy, to prevent accidents which happen in coal and other mines. The safety-lamp is founded on the principle that flame, in passing through iron-wire meshes, loses so much of its heat as to be incapable of igniting inflammable gases. The father of all safetylamps was Dr. Reid Clanny, of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements are authenticated in the Transactions of the Society of Arts for 1817. The "Geordy," constructed by George Stephenson, the engineer, in 1815, is said to be the safest. A miner's electric light, by MM. Dumas and Benoit, was exhibited in Paris on 8 Sept. 1862. On 14 Aug. 1867, safety-lamps were rigidly tested by several mining engineers, and serious doubts thrown upon their complete efficacy. Col. Shakespear's safetylamp (light extinguished by opening) exhibited at Royal Institution, etc., May, 1879.

Saffron (saffran, French; saffrano, Italian), the flower of crocus, was first brought to England in the reign of Edward III. by a pilgrim, about 1339; proba

bly from Arabia, as the word is from the Arabic supher.

-Miller. It was cultivated in England in 1582.

Sage (sauge, French, salvia, Latin), a wholesome herb, comfortable to the brain and nerves.-Mortimer. A species of this garden plant grew early in England, and some varieties were imported. The Mexican sage, Salvia Mexicana, was brought from Mexico, 1724. The blue African sage, Salvia Africana, and the golden African sage, Salvia aurea, were brought to England from the Cape of Good Hope in 1731.

Sacrifice was offered to God by Abel, 3875 B.C. Sacrifices to the gods were introduced into Greece by Saguntum, or ZACYNTHUS, now Murviedro, in VaPhoroneus, king of Argos, 1773 B.C. Human sacrifices lentia, E. Spain, renowned for the dreadful siege it susseem to have originated with the Chaldæans, from whom tained, 219 B.C. The citizens, after performing incredthe custom passed into other Eastern nations. All sac-ible acts of valor for eight months, chose to be buried rifices to the true God were to cease with the sacrifice in the ruins of their city rather than surrender to Hanof Christ, 33 A.D. (Heb. x. 12-14). Pagan sacrifices were nibal. They burned themselves, with their houses, forbidden by the emperor Constantius II., 341. and the conqueror became master of a pile of ashes, 218 B.C.

Sacrilege. In 1835, the punishment (formerly death) was made transportation for life. By 23 & 24 Vict. c. 96, s. 50 (1861), breaking into a place of worship and stealing therefrom was made punishable with penal servitude for life.

Sacriportus (Latium, Italy). Here Sylla defeated the younger Marius and Papirus Carbo with great slaughter, B.C. 82, and became dictator, 81.

Saddles. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups. Saddles were in use in the third century, and are mentioned as made of leather in 304, and were known in England about 600. Side-saddles for ladies were introduced by Anne, queen of Richard II., in 1388.—Stow.

Saigon, French colony in Cochin China, founded in 1860, after a defeat of the Chinese, 17 Feb. 1859.

Sailors' Home, in Wells street, London Docks; established by Mr. George Green, 1830; opened 1835; enlarged 1865. In one year it admitted 5444 boarders, who, besides home, had evening instruction, the use of a savings-bank, etc. The establishment is self-supporting, aided by subscriptions. Similar institutions have since been established. Sailors' Orphan Girls' School and Home, Hampstead, established 1829.

Saint. For names with this prefix, see the names themselves throughout the book.

Gazette, first appeared 31 May, 1880.
Sakya Muni, see Buddhism.

St. James's Gazette, independent evening paper, Sadducees, a Jewish sect, said to have been found-edited by Fred. Greenwood, formerly editor of Pall Mall ed by Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonus, about 200 B.C., who, misinterpreting his master's doctrine, taught that there was neither heaven nor hell, angel nor spirit; that the soul was mortal, and that there was no resurrection of the body from the dead. The Sadducees rejected the oral law, maintained by the Pharisees; see Matt. xxii. 23; Acts xxiii. 8.

Sadler's Wells (N. London), so called after Mr. Sadler, who built an orchestra to entertain the invalids who used the waters medicinally, 1683. In time the orchestra was enclosed, and the building became a place for dramatic performances. The theatre was opened in 1765. Eighteen persons were trampled to death at this theatre, on a false alarm of fire, 18 Oct. 1807; see under Theatres. The theatre put up to auction and not sold, 31 Aug. 1875; and 30 July, 1878. Opened for miscellaneous entertainments, 6 Jan. 1877. Taken by Mrs. Bateman, Sept. 1878; partly rebuilt; opened as New Sadler's Wells on 9 Oct. 1879, with the opera "Rob Roy." Miss Isabella Bateman became manager after her mother's death, 13 Jan. 1881.

Salado, a river, S. Spain; see Tarifa.

Salads are stated to have been in use in the middle

ages; lettuces are said to have been introduced into England from the Low Countries, 1520-47.

Salamanca (W. Spain), taken from the Saracens 861. The university was founded 1240, and the cathedral built 1513. Near here the British and allies, commanded by lord Wellington, totally defeated the French army under marshal Marmont, 22 July, 1812. The loss of the victors was most severe, amounting in killed, wounded, and missing to nearly 6000 men. left in the victor's hands 7141 prisoners, 11 pieces of cannon, 6 stands of colors, and 2 eagles. This victory was followed by the capture of Madrid.

Marmont

Salamis (near Athens). In a great sea-fight here, 20 Oct. 480 B.C., Themistocles, the Greek commander, with only 310 sail, defeated the fleet of Xerxes, king of Persia, which consisted of 2000 sail.-Near Salamis, in

Cyprus, the Greeks defeated the Persian fleet, 449 B.C.; and Demetrius Poliorcetes defeated the fleet of Ptolemy and his allies, 306 B.C.

Salmon Fisheries. The laws relating to them were consolidated and amended in 1861, and the report of a commission of inquiry (including sir Wm. Jardine) was published, in Feb. 1862. An act restricting the capt

Salassi, a turbulent Alpine tribe, were thoroughly subdued by Terentius Varro, 25 B.C., and a Roman col-ure of salmon at certain times, passed in 1863, was ony established in their territories (now Aosta).

Saldanha Bay, S. Atlantic ocean, northward of the Cape of Good Hope. Here, on 17 Aug. 1796, a Dutch squadron, under admiral Lucas, was captured by viceadmiral sir George Keith Elphinstone without resistance; sir George was created lord Keith.

Sale of Food and Drugs Act, passed 11 Aug. 1875; repeals all adulteration acts, and makes new arrangements.

Salenckemen, on the Danube. Here a victory was gained by the imperialists, under prince Louis of Baden, over the Turks, commanded by the grand-vizier Mustapha Kiuprigli, 19 Aug. 1691.

Salerno (Salernum, S. Italy), an ancient Roman colony. Its university, with a celebrated school of medicine, reputed to be the oldest in Europe, was founded by Robert Guiscard the Norman, who seized Salerno in 1077. Salerno suffered much in the wars of the middle ages. Salford, near Manchester.

An incendiary explosion at the barracks caused one
death; Fenians suspected...
..14 Jan. 1881

Salique (or SALIC) Law, by which females are excluded from inheriting the crown of France, is said to have been instituted by Pharamond, 424, and ratified in a council of state by Clovis I., the real founder of the French monarchy, in 511.-Hénault. This law, introduced into Spain by the Bourbons, 1700, was formally abolished by decree, 29 March, 1830; and on the death of Ferdinand VII. his daughter succeeded as Isabella II., 29 Sept. 1833, see Spain. By this law also Hanover was separated from England, when queen Victoria ascended the English throne, 1837.

amended in 1869-70 and 1873. During the "salmon
fence," 14 Sept. to 1 Feb., it is unlawful to catch fish of
the salmon kind. A salmon-fishery congress opened at
South Kensington, 7 June, 1867. Salmon eggs sent to
all the New England rivers at the time of the first set-
New Zealand, Jan. 1878. Salmon were very abundant in
tlement of the country, but the many dams built upon
some of these rivers - notably the Merrimac - have
excluded the fish. The chief supply for American mar-
kets comes now from the Kennebec river in Maine, and
from Canadian streams. Considerable attention has
been given to the restocking of American streams with
salmon by the United States Fish Commission. In
Nov. 1871, the Russian method of artificial propagation
was tried in the Penobscot region with remarkable suc-
cess. Since that time the work of hatching the eggs
and stocking rivers with salmon has been steadily pros-
ecuted with good results.

SALMON OVA, packed in boxes with moss, charcoal, and
ice, to retard development -
-a plan suggested and
proved practicable by Mr. E. H. Moscrop in 1863; adopt-
ed successfully by Mr. J. A. Youl, who sent ova to Aus-
tralia in the Norfolk

1864

Salmon disease, in rivers, announced 1879; commission
of inquiry appointed, Mr. F Buckland and others, Jan. 1880
Salonica, see Thessalonica.

Salt (chloride of sodium, a compound of the gas chlorine and the metal sodium) is procured from the rocks in the earth, from salt-springs, and from sea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wielitzka, near Cracow in Poland, have been worked 600 years. The salt-works in Cheshire, called the Wiches (Nantwich, Northwich, and Middlewich), were of great importance in the time of the Saxon heptarchy. The salt-mines of StaffordSalisbury (Wilts), founded in the beginning of the shire were discovered about 1670. Salt-duties were first thirteenth century, on the removal of the cathedral exacted in 1702; they were renewed in 1732; reduced hither from Old Sarum. National councils or parlia- in 1823, and in that year were ordered to cease in 1825. ments were repeatedly held at Salisbury, particularly in During the French war the duty reached to 30%. per ton. 1296, by Edward 1., in 1328, by Edward III.; and in For the salt-tax in France, see Gabelle. The govern1384. Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham, was exement salt monopoly in India was abolished in May, 1863, cuted here, by order of Richard III., in 1483.-On SALIS- by Sir C. Trevelyan. Since 1810, twenty-three states of BURY PLAIN is Stonehenge (which see). This plain was the United States have produced salt for market. Virestimated at 500,000 acres. On it were so many cross-ginia salt-works were in operation before 1620. Salt roads, and so few houses to take directions from, that Thomas, earl of Pembroke, planted a tree at each milestone from Salisbury to Shaftesbury, for the traveller's guide. The autumn military manoeuvres took place on Salisbury Plain, Aug., Sept. 1872; see under Army. The first seat of the BISHOPRIC was at Sherborne, St. Aldhelm being prelate, 705. Herman removed the seat to Old Sarum, about 1072; and the see was removed to Salisbury by a papal bull in 1217. It has yielded to the Church of Rome one saint and two cardinals. The building of the cathedral commenced 28 April, 1220, and was completed in 1258. This edifice is reckoned one of our finest ecclesiastical erections. Its spire, the loftiest in the kingdom, was considered in danger in April, 1864, and subscriptions were begun for its immediate repair. The choir was reopened, after restoration by sir G. G. Scott, 1 Nov. 1876. The bishopric is valued in the king's books at 13677. 11s. 8d. Present income

5000/.

RECENT BISHOPS.

1797. John Fisher; died 2 July, 1825.
1825. Thomas Burgess; died 19 Feb. 1837.
1837. Edmund Denison; died 6 March, 1854.
1854. Walter Kerr Hamilton; died 1869.
1869. George Moberly; elected 9 Sept.

Sallee, a port of Morocco, long a haunt for pirates, destroyed by the British in 1632, and about 300 captives released.

Sallentini, allies of the Samnites, the only Italian tribe not subject to Rome, were overcome in war in 267 and 266 B.C., and Brundisium, their port, taken.

was made in South Carolina in 1689, and acts to encourage the manufacture were passed in 1725. The Onondaga salt-springs, in N. Y., were worked by the Indians. Salt was first made near Syracuse by white men in 1788. The state of New York owns the salines, and, until 1846, charged a royalty of six cents a bushel for salt made from the water. In that year the royalty was reduced to one cent a bushel. Salt was first made in Ohio in 1798; in Michigan about 1859. Since 1797 salt has been largely employed in the manufacture of chloride of sodium or bleaching powder (by obtaining its chlorine), and soap (by obtaining its soda). On this are based the chemical works of Cheshire, Lancashire, and other places; see under Alkalies.

Salt Lake, see Mormons.
Saltaire, see Alpaca.

Saltpetre (from sal petræ, salt of the rocks), or NiTRE, is a compound of nitric acid and potash (nitrogen, oxygen, and potassium), and hence is called nitrate of potash. It is the explosive ingredient in gunpowder, many detonating powders, and lucifer-matches. Boyle in the seventeenth century demonstrated that saltpetre was composed of aquafortis (nitric acid) and potash; the discoveries of Lavoisier (1777) and Davy (1807) showed its real composition. Its manufacture in England began about 1625. During the French revolutionary war the manufacture was greatly increased by the researches of Berthollet.

Salute at Sea. It is a received maxim at sea that he who returns the salute always fires fewer guns

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