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Royal Astronomical Society (charter 1831)....... Cambridge Philosophical Society (charter 1832). Medico-Botanical Society....

Social Science. The National Association for | Egyptian Society.. the Promotion of Social Science originated in a meeting at lord Brougham's in May, 1857. Its object is to promote improvements in the administration of law, in education, in public health, and in social economy. It holds annual meetings, and publishes its proceedings. Mr. Wm. Ellis and Mr. John Stuart Mill began to promote the study

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...about 1823 ..12 Oct. 1857

..11 Oct. 1858

.10 Oct. 1859

.4 Oct. 1871

Hull Literary and Philosophical Society
Yorkshire Philosophical Society

Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society
Royal Society of Literature (charter 1826)..
Royal Asiatic Society (charter 1824). .
Bannatyne Club, Edinburgh...
Mechanics' Institution, London..
Athenæum Club..

Western Literary Institution
Eastern Literary Institution..
Zoological Society..

Incorporated Law Society (charter 1831)..
Society for Diffusion of Useful Knowledge..
Ashmolean Society, Oxford.

Maitland Club, Glasgow..

Royal Geographical Society..
Gaelic Society..

Royal United Service Institution..
Royal Dublin Society.
Harveian Society.

British Association.

Marylebone Literary Institution..
Entomological Society.
Statistical Society

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.24 Sept. 1860

14 Aug. 1861

...6 June, 1862

.7 Oct. 1863

.22 Sept. 1864

.4 Oct. 1865

Manchester.

.2 Oct. 1866

Belfast..

.18 Sept. 1867

Birmingham..

..30 Sept. 1868

Bristol..

.29 Sept. 1869

Newcastle-on-Tyne.

.21 Sept. 1870

Leeds

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11 Sept. 1872

1832

1 Oct. 1873

1833

.30 Sept. 1874

1834

...6 Oct. 1875

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Liverpool....

11 Oct. 1876

Surtees Society, Durham..

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Aberdeen..

Cheltenham,.

Manchester.

19 Sept. 1877

.23 Oct. 1878

Royal Institute of British Architects (charter 1837). Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society.

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.1 Oct. 1879

1835-7

..5 Oct. 1880

Numismatic Society..

1836

.3 Oct. 1881

Ornithological Society

1837

1837-8

1838

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Norwich..

Glasgow.

Brighton

Edinburgh.

Dublin

He had, be1801, estab

Social Wars, see Athens and Marsi. Socialism was warmly advocated in Jan. 1834, by the celebrated Robert Owen. ginning at New Lanark, in Scotland, about lished a settlement at New Harmony, Indiana, in America, in 1824. He died 17 Nov. 1858, aged 90. The French socialists, termed Communists, became a powerful political body in that country, were implicated in the revolution of 1848, and made an insurrection at Paris, 1871; see France, Positive Philosophy, and Workingmen (who, in Great Britain, have received by legislation nearly all they require).

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A grand congress of socialists met at Ghent..... ..Sept. 1877 Socialism said to be increasing in Germany.. Stringent bill to repress it passed in the parliament; socialists expelled from Germany by decree. Nov.; many papers suppressed, Nov., Dec. 1878. Expulsions renewed... ...autumn, 1880

Societies AND Institutions, LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC, in Great Britain. Further details of many of these will be found under their respective heads. All in the list below are in London, except otherwise stated. An act was passed 11 Aug. 1854, "to afford facilities for the establishment of institutions for the promotion of literature and science," by grants of land, etc.; and for their regulation. The Royal and London Institutions were exempted from the operation of the act.

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Abbotsford Club, Edinburgh..

Electrical Society

Etching Club.

Royal Agricultural Society
English Historical Society
Camden Society...
Royal Botanical Society
Ecclesiological Society..
Microscopical Society (Royal, 1866).
Spalding Club, Aberdeen.

Royal Botanical Society of London.
Parker Society.
Percy Society..

Irish Archæological Society, Dublin..
London Library.
Shakespeare Society..
Chemical Society
Pharmaceutical Society
Wodrow Society, Edinburgh..
Philological Society.
Elfric Society...

Chetham Society, Manchester.
Spottiswoode Society, Edinburgh.
Archæological Association

Royal Archæological Institute..
Sydenham Society.....
Ethnological Society...
Law Amendment Society.
Handel Society...
Syro-Egyptian Society....
Ray Society...
Caxton Society..
Celtic Society, Dublin....
Pathological Society.

Sussex Archæological Society, Lewes..

Cambrian Archæological Association
Cavendish Society...
Hakluyt Society...
Palæontographical Society.

Institute of Mechanical Engineers (Birmingham)..
Institute of Actuaries....
Arundel Society..

(British) Meteorological Society (charter 1866).
Epidemiological Society

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Royal Irish Academy, charter

1786 Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts..

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1871 surrendered to the Germans under the grand-duke of Mecklenburg, 16 Oct. 1870. 99 officers, 4633 men, 128 guns, etc., were said to be taken. The Germans thus 1873-5 obtained a second line of railway from Châlons to Paris. Solar System, nearly as now accepted, is said to have been taught by Pythagoras of Samos, about 529 B.C. He placed the sun in the centre, and all the planets moving in elliptical orbits round it-a doctrine su1875 perseded by the Ptolemaic system (which see). The system of Pythagoras, revived by Copernicus (1543), is called the Copernican system. Its truth was demon1877 strated by sir Isaac Newton in 1687; see Planets.

1874

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1876

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Society Islands, in the Pacific ocean, discovered by De Quiros in 1606; rediscovered by capt. Wallis, 1767, who gave Otaheite or Tahiti the name of King George's island. Capt. Cook, who visited them in 1769 and 1777, named them Society islands in honor of the Royal Society; see Otaheite.

Socinians, persons who accept the opinions of Faustus Socinus (died 1562) and his nephew Lælius (died 1604), Siennese noblemen. They held-1. That the Eternal Father was the one only God, and that Jesus Christ was no otherwise God than by his superiority to all other creatures; 2. That Christ was not a mediator; 3. That hell will endure for a time, after which the soul and body will be destroyed; 4. That it is unlawful for princes to make war.-Hook. The Socinians established a church at Rakow, in Poland, and made proselytes in Transylvania, 1563. They were expelled from Poland in 1658. The Rakovian Catechism was established in 1574; see Unitarians.

Solebay, or SOUTHWOLD BAY (Suffolk), where a fierce naval battle was fought between the fleets of England and France on one side, and the Dutch on the other; the former commanded by the duke of York, afterwards James II., 28 May, 1672. The English lost four ships, and the Dutch three; but the enemy fled, The earl of Sandwich and were pursued to their coasts. was blown up, and thousands were killed and wounded. Sol-fa System, see Music.

But the

Solferino (in Lombardy), the site of the chief struggle on the great battle of 24 June, 1859, between the allied French and Sardinian army, commanded by their respective sovereigns, and the Austrians under gen. Hess; the emperor being present. The Austrians, after their defeat at Magenta, gradually retreated across the Mincio, and took up a position in the celebrated quadrilateral, and were expected there to await the attack. advance of Garibaldi on one side, and of prince Napoleon and the Tuscans on the other, induced them to recross the Mincio and take the offensive on 23 June. The conflict began early on the 24th, and lasted fifteen hours. At first the Austrians had the advantage; but the sucSocotra (Dioscoridis insula), an island in the In- cessful attack of the French on Cavriana and Solferino dian ocean, belonging to the imam of Muscat, 120 miles changed the fortune of the day, and the Austrians, after east of cape Guardafui, eastern Africa. In the summer desperate encounters, were compelled to retreat. of 1878, it was said to have been given up to the British. French attribute the victory to the skill and bravery of Sodium, a remarkable metal, first obtained in 1807 their emperor and the generals MacMahon and Niel; the by sir Humphry Davy, from soda (which was formerly Austrians, to the destruction of their reserve by the rifled confounded with potash, but proved to be a distinct sub-cannon of their adversaries. The Sardinians maintained stance by Duhamel in 1736). This metal, like potassium, was obtained by the agency of the electric battery. In consequence of Deville's improved processes, sodium is now manufactured by Bell Brothers, of Newcastle, at 10s. a pound (1868). Common salt (chloride of sodium) is a compound of sodium and chlorine; see Alkalies.

Sodom and Gomorrah (Palestine), with their inhabitants, were destroyed by fire from heaven 1898 B.C. (Gen. xix.).

Sodor, said to be derived from Sodor-eys, or South isles (the Æbrides or Hebrides), in distinction from Orkneys, the North isles. The southern or western isles were made an episcopal diocese by Magnus, king of Norway, 1098, and joined to the Isle of Man about 1113; see Man. Soffarides Dynasty reigned in Persia, 872-902. Softas, Mahometan students devoted to the Koran only; see Turkey, May, 1876.

The

a fearful contest of fifteen hours at San Martino, it is said against double their number. Loss of the Austrians, 630 officers and 19,311 soldiers; of the allies, 8 generals, 936 officers, and 17,305 soldiers killed and wounded. This battle closed the war; preliminaries of peace being signed at Villafranca, 12 July. On 24 June, 1870, on the site of the battle, three ossuaries, containing the bones of thousands of the slain, were solemnly consecrated in the presence of representatives of Austria, France, and Italy.

Solicitor, see Attorney. By the Supreme Judicature act, attorneys in future are to be styled solicitors; an act for regulating their examination was passed 23 July, 1877.

Solicitor-general, the legal officer next in rank and deputy to the attorney-general, whom he frequently

succeeds.

1839. Sir Thomas Wilde (afterwards lord Truro), 5 Dec.
1841. Sir William Follett (second time), 6 Sept.
1844. Sir Frederick Thesiger (since lord Chelmsford), 17 April.

Soho Bazaar AND Theatre, see Bazaars and 1845. Sir Fitzroy Kelly, 17 July. 1846. Sir John Jervis, 4 July. Theatres.

Soissons (France), capital of the Gallic Suessiones, was subdued by Julius Cæsar, 57 B.C. It was held by Syagrius, after his father Ægidius, till his defeat by Clovis, A.D. 486. Several councils have been held at Soissons (in 744, 1092, 1122). Its academy was established in 1674. During the Franco-Prussian war, Soissons, after three weeks' investment and four days' bombardment,

66

Sir David Dundas, 18 July.
1848. Sir John Romilly, 4 April.
1851. Sir W. Page Wood, 28 March.
1850. Sir Alexander J. E. Cockburn, 11 July.
1852. Sir Fitzroy Kelly, Feb.

66

Sir Richard Bethell, Dec.
1856. Rt. hon. James Stuart Wortley, Nov.
1857. Sir Henry Keating, May.
1858. Sir Hugh M. Cairns, 26 Feb.
1859. Sir Henry Keating, 18 June.

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of Ghuznee in 1025. The priests wished to preserve the idol, but Mahmoud broke it to pieces, and found it filled with diamonds, etc. He carried the gates to Ghuznee. When that city was taken by gen. Nott, 6 Sept. 1842, lord Ellenborough ordered the gates to be restored, after an exile of 800 years, and issued a proclamation much censured at the time. The gates are made of sandalwood, and are described and figured in the "Archæologia" of the Society of Antiquaries, vol. xxx.

Somorrostro, see Spain, 1874.

Sonderbund, see Switzerland, 1846.

Sonnet, a poem in fourteen lines, with rhymes ad

Solifidians (from solus, only, and fides, faith), a justed by rules, was invented, it is said, by Guido name given to the Antinomians (which see).

Solomon's Temple, see Temple.

Solway Moss (Cumberland, bordering on Scotland). On 13 Nov. 1771, it swelled, owing to heavy rains. Upwards of 400 acres rose to such a height above the level of the ground that at last it rolled forward like a torrent above a mile, sweeping along with it houses, trees, etc. It covered 600 acres at Netherby, and destroyed about 30 small villages. Near Solway Moss the Scots were defeated by the English, 25 Nov. 1542.

Somaj, see Deism.

Sombrero (West Indies). On this desert isle Robert Jeffery, a British man-of-war's man, was put ashore by his commander, the hon. capt. W. Lake, for having tapped a barrel of beer when the ship was on short allowance. After sustaining life for eight days on a few limpets and rain-water, he was saved by an American vessel, 13 Dec. 1807, and returned to England. Sir Francis Burdett advocated his cause in parliament, and he received 600l. as a compensation from capt. Lake, who was tried by a court-martial, and dismissed the service, 10 Feb. 1810.

Somerset House (London), formerly a palace, founded on the site of several churches and other buildings levelled in 1549, by the protector Somerset, whose residence fell to the crown after his execution, 22 Jan. 1552. Here resided at times queen Elizabeth, Anne of Denmark, and Catherine, queen of Charles II. Old Somerset house, a mixture of Grecian and Gothic, was demolished in 1775, and the present edifice, from a design by Sir William Chambers, was erected for public offices. The Royal Academy of Arts first assembled in the apartments given to the members by the king, 17 Jan. 1771. The Royal Society met here, 1780-1857; and apartments here were also held by the Society of Antiquaries and the Geological Society-all three now at Burlington house. Large suites of government buildings were erected in 1774. The Navy office, Pipe office, Victualling, and other offices, were removed here in 1788, and various government departments since. The east wing, forming the King's College (see King's College), was completed in 1833. By an act passed in 1854, the offices of the duchy of Cornwall were transferred to Pimlico.

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d' Arezzo about 1024. The most celebrated sonnets are those by Petrarch (about 1327), Shakespeare (1609). Milton (about 1650), and Wordsworth (1820).

Sonnites, the orthodox Mahometans who now possess the Turkish empire; see Mahometanism. Sons of the Clergy, see Clergy.

Sonthals, a tribe of N. India, brought to Bengal about 1830, where they prospered till, partly from the instigation of a fanatic, and partly from the exactions of money-lenders, they broke out into rebellion in July, 1855, and committed fearful outrages. They were quite subdued early in 1856, and many were removed to the newly conquered province of Pegu.

Sophia, St. (in Constantinople). The first church was dedicated to St. Sophia (holy wisdom) by Constantius II., 360; this having been destroyed, the second. the present edifice, was founded by Justinian, 531, and dedicated 537. Since the Mahometan conquest, in 1453, it has been used as an imperial mosque. Its length is 269 feet, and its breadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green jasper, from the temple of Diana at Ephesus, and of porphyry, from the temple of the Sun at Rome. Four minarets were added by Selim II., who reigned in 1566. The interior of the dome is beautifully ornamented with mosaic work.

Sophists, teachers of youth in Athens, who were censured by Socrates, and consequently were instrumental in causing his judicial murder, 399 B.C. The controversy against them was carried on by Plato and his disciples.

Sorbonne, a society of ecclesiastics at Paris, founded by Robert de Sorbonne in 1252. The members lived in common, and devoted themselves to study and gratuitous teaching. They soon attained a European reputation as a faculty of theology, their judgment being frequently appealed to, from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century. The influence of the Sorbonne was declining when the society was broken up in 1789. The buildings are now devoted to education.

Sorcerers and Magicians. A law was enacted against their seductions, 33 Hen. VIII. 1541; and another statute, equally severe, was passed, 5 Eliz. 1563. The pretension to sorcery was made capital, 1 James I. 1603; see Witchcraft.

Soudan, or SOUJAH, the title of the lieutenant-generals of the caliphs, which they bore in their provinces and armies. The officers afterwards made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of the forces of Noureddin, king of Damascus, was the first that took upon him this title in Egypt, 1165, after having killed the caliph Caym.

Soudan, or NIGRITIA, a region of Central Africa, partly subjected to the khedive of Egypt since 1874. It was well governed by col. Gordon till 1879.

Soulages Collection. About 1827 M. Soulages of Toulouse collected 790 specimens of Italian art and workmanship, etc. These were bought for 11,000l. by 73 English gentlemen, with the view of first exhibiting them to the public and afterwards selling them to the government (who gradually purchased them between 1858 and 1865). They formed part of the "Art Treasures" exhibited at Manchester in 1857,

Sound, see Acoustics.

Sound Duties. Till the year 1857 no merchant ship was allowed to pass the Sound (a narrow channel separating Zealand from Sweden) without clearing at Elsinore and paying toll. These duties had their origin in an agreement between the king of Denmark and the Hanse towns (1348), by which the former undertook to maintain light-houses, etc., along the Cattegat, and the latter to pay duty for the same. The first treaty with England in relation to this was in 1450; other countries followed. In 1855 the United States determined to pay the dues no more; and in the same year the Danish government proposed that these dues should be capitalized, which was eventually agreed to, the sum being 30,476,325 rix-dollars. In Aug. 1857, the British government paid 10,126,855 rix-dollars (1,125,206.) to the Danes as their proportion.-The passage of the Sound was effected, in defiance of strong fortresses, by sir Hyde Parker and lord Nelson, 31 March, 1801; see Baltic Expedition.

Soundings at Sea. Capt. Ross, of H.M.S. Edipus, in 1840, took extraordinary soundings at sea. One taken 900 miles west of St. Helena extended to the depth of 5000 fathoms. In the latitude 33° S. and longitude 9 W., about 300 miles from the cape of Good Hope, 2266 fathoms were sounded; the weight employed amounted to 450 pounds. On 13 July, 1857, lieut. Joseph Dayman, in the North Atlantic ocean, lat. 51° 9' N., long, 40° 2′ W., in sounding, found a bottom at 2424 fathoms. The deepest sounding known (3875 fathoms) was taken by the Challenger, capt. Nares, 24 March, 1873, in the North Atlantic, north of St. Thomas.

19 Feb. 1868; succeeded by sir James Fergusson, Dec. 1868; by Anthony Musgrave, Jan. 1873; by William Wellington Cairns, Jan. 1877; sir W. F. D. Jervois, June, 1877. Population in 1855, 85,821; in 1865, 156,605; in 1871, 185,626; in 1877, 225,677.

South Kensington Museum, near Brompton old church (containing the pictures presented by Mr. Vernon, Mr. Sheepshanks, Mrs. Ellison, and those bequeathed by Turner, the great painter, as well as specimens of sculpture and art, educational collections, products of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, etc.), was opened on 24 June, 1857. A special exhibition of works of art, of immense value, lent for the occasion, was opened here in the summer of 1862, and closed in November. In July, 1873, a testimonial to Mr. Henry Cole, C.B., was proposed for his exertions in organizing this museum, and in promoting its objects. Mr. John Forster, biographer of Dickens, bequeathed his library of books, MSS., paintings, and drawings to this museum. He died 1 Feb..

Scientific Apparatus Loan Exhibition (which see) opened 13 May, closed...

..30 Dec.

1876

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South Mountain (Maryland), BATTLE OF, fought 14 Sept. 1862, three days before the drawn battle at Antietam. South Mountain is the name given to a prolongation of a range of the Blue Ridge north of the Potomac from Harper's Ferry. Turner's Gap affords a passage from Frederick City to Williamsport; Crampton's Gap gives a similar opening towards Harper's Ferry. Lee, after crossing the Potomac, had divided his army, so that an opportunity was given McClellan to cut in between and attack each portion. Franklin was South African Confederation: to comprise ordered through Crampton's Gap to cut off M'Laws and the three British colonies-Cape Town, Natal, and West relieve Harper's Ferry. The remainder of the army Griqua Land (1873)—and the two Dutch republics-Or- was to move by way of Turner's Gap upon the rear of ange River free state and the South African or Trans-Lee's main column. The confederate general D. H. Hill vaal republic (1852). The formation was proposed by succeeded in reaching the summit of Turner's Gap before the earl of Carnarvon, colonial secretary, in a despatch the arrival of the Union force. The battle of the 14th to sir Henry Barkly, governor of Cape Town, 4 May, consisted of an attempt to wrest this position from the 1875, and advocated by the historian, J. A. Froude, on a confederates, soon reinforced by Longstreet's corps. The visit. It was much opposed at the Cape; see Cape. A national troops were successful. 30,000 Union troops conference of delegates in London was opened Aug. were engaged and 17,000 confederates. National loss, 1876. 312 killed and 1234 wounded; confederate, 2000. This battle was really the decisive one of the campaign, and At Crampforced Lee to fight the battle of Antietam. ton's Gap, six miles south, an action was at the same

The South Africa act, for the union under one government of such of the South African colonies and states as may agree thereto," was passed 10 Aug. 1877.

South African Republic, name assumed by the time going on between Franklin and M'Laws, in which Boers in the Transvaal (which see) in 1880-1.

South America, see America.

the latter was driven from his position.

Southampton, a seaport (S. England), a county of itself, near the Roman Clausentum and the Saxon Hamtune. It frequently suffered by Danish incursions; Canute, when king, occasionally resided here. The charter was granted by Henry I. and confirmed by Richard I. and John; and the free grammar-school was founded by Edward VI. On 17 July, 1861, a monument to Dr. Isaac Watts, a native, was inaugurated, and on 15 Oct. 1862, the Hartley institution was opened by lord Palmerston. The prince of Wales laid the foundation of the parish church of St. Mary, built as a memorial of Samuel Wilberforce, bishop of Winchester, 12 Aug. 1878; conse crated 19 June, 1879.

South Australia was visited by capt. Sturt in 1830, and explored shortly after by capt. Parker and Mr. Kent, the former of whom was killed by the natives. The boundaries of the province were fixed by 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 95 (1834); and it was occupied 26 Dec. 1836, by capt. Hindmarsh, the first governor. It was colonized according to Mr. E. Gibbon Wakefield's scheme, which was carried out by the South Australian Colonization Association. The colony for several years underwent severe trials through the great influx of emigrants, land-jobbing, building speculations, etc., which produced almost universal bankruptcy in 1839. In five years Southcott, Joanna, a fanatic, born in 1750, came after, the energy of the colonists had overcome their from Exeter to London, where her followers at one period difficulties, and the prosperity of the colony appeared amounted to many thousands, the low and ignorant befully established. In 1812 the highly productive Burra-ing her principal dupes. In 1792 she announced herself Burra copper-mines were discovered, and large fortunes were suddenly realized; but in 1851 the discovery of gold in New South Wales and Victoria almost paralyzed this province by drawing off a large part of the laboring population. Very little gold was found in South Australia; but a reaction took place in favor of the coppermines, agriculture, etc. Before the discovery of gold, little trade existed between Adelaide (the capital of South Australia) and Melbourne; but in 1852 gold was

transmitted from the latter to the former to the amount of 2,215,167, principally for breadstuffs, farm produce, etc. The bishopric of Adelaide was founded in 1847. Sir Dominic Daly, appointed governor in Nov. 1861, died

as the woman spoken of in Rev. chap. xii.; and a disease favored the delusion that she would be the mother of the promised Shiloh. She died 27 Dec. 1814. In 1851 there existed in England four congregations, professing to expect her return. Her successor, Mrs. Peacock, died March, 1875, aged 103 (?).

Southeastern Railway, from London to Folkestone, opened 28 June, 1843; to Dover, 7 Feb. 1814. Southern Confederate States, see Confeder

ates.

Southern Continent. The Southern ocean was first traversed by Magellan in 1520; and explored by

Wallis and Carteret in 1766, and by Cook in 1773 and | Coinage act, 1870, the weight of the sovereign is fixed
1774. Of the southern continent little more is known at 123.27447 grains troy; specific gravity, 17.57 (916.67,
than that it is icebound, and contains active volcanoes. gold being 1000); half-sovereigns, 61.63723 grains. The
It was discovered in the first instance by capt. John dragon sovereigns were reissued in 1871.
Biscoe, on 27 Feb. 1831, in lat. 65° 57' S., long. 47° 20' E.,
extending east and west 200 miles-this he named En-
derby Land, after the gentleman who had equipped him
for the voyage. Capt. Biscoe also discovered Graham's
Land on 15 Feb. 1832, situated in lat 67° 1' S., long. 71°
48′ W. The Messrs. Enderby equipped three other ex-
peditions in search of the southern continent, the last
(in connection with some other gentlemen) in 1838,
when capt. Balleny had command, who, on 9 Feb. 1839,
discovered the Balleny islands, in lat. 67° S., long. 165° E.,
and in March, 1839, Sabrina Land, in lat. 65° 10′ S., long.

118° 30' E. In 1840, a French expedition under the
command of admiral D'Urville, and an American expe-
dition under the command of commodore Wilkes, great-
ly added to our knowledge in respect to the existence
of a southern continent, and this was again increased
by the expedition which sailed from England in 1839,
under the command of capt. sir James Clark Ross, who
discovered Victoria Land in 1841, and subsequently
penetrated as far south as 78° 11'.

South-sea Bubble commenced with the estab-
lishment of the South-sea Company in 1710, which was
at first unwisely and afterwards dishonestly managed.
It exploded in 1720, ruining thousands of families; and
the directors' estates, to the value of 2,014,000, were
seized in 1721 and sold. Mr. Knight, the cashier, ab-
sconded with 100,000l.; but he compounded the fraud
for 10,000l., and returned to England in 1743. Almost
all the wealthy persons in the kingdom had become
speculators; the artifices of the directors having raised
the shares, originally 1007., to the price of 1000l. A par-
liamentary inquiry took place in Nov. 1720, and Aisla-
bie, chancellor of the exchequer, and several members of
parliament were expelled the house in 1721; see Law's
Bubble.

Southwark (S. London) was governed by its own
bailiffs till 1327. The city, however, found great incon-
venience from the number of malefactors who escaped
thither, in order to be out of the reach and cognizance
of the city magistrates; and a grant was made of South-
wark to the city of London by the crown for a small an-
nuity. In Edward VI.'s reign it was formed into a city
ward, and was named Bridge Ward Without, 1550.-
Southwark bridge was designed by John Rennie, and
built by a company, 1815-19, at an expense of 800,000l.
It consists of three great cast-iron arches, resting on
massive stone piers and abutments; the distance between
the abutments is 708 feet; the centre arch is 240 feet
span, the two others 210 feet each; and the total weight
of iron 5308 tons. The bridge was freed from toll on 8
Nov. 1864, the company receiving a compensation from
the city. An act for the payment of dividends to share-
holders was passed in 1872.-Southwark park was opened
19 June, 1869.

Southwell (Nottinghamshire), an ancient Saxon
town, where a church was founded by Paulinus, arch-
bishop of York, 627; made collegiate before the Con-
quest, refounded by Henry VIII., and made a bishopric
by Henry VIII., 1541; dissolved by Edward VI. Col-
legiate church restored by Elizabeth, 1586. Near here
Charles I. surrendered himself to the Scotch army in
1646. The Bishoprics act, authorizing the establish-
ment of a see at Southwell, was passed 16 Aug. 1878.

Southwold, see Solebay.

Sovereign, an ancient and modern British gold coin.
In 1489 22 pieces, in value 20s., "to be called the sov-
ereign," were ordered to be coined out of a pound of
gold.-Ruding. In 1542 sovereigns were coined in value
20s., which afterwards, in 1550 and 1552 (4 & 6 Edw. VI.),
passed for 24s. and 30s. "Sovereigns" of the new coin-
age were directed to pass for 20s. 1 July, and half-sover-
eigns for 10s. 10 Oct. 1817; see Coin and Gold. By the

Spa-fields (N. London). Here about 30,000 per-
sons assembled to vote an address from the distressed
manufacturers to the prince regent, 15 Nov. 1816. A
second meeting, 2 Dec. following, terminated in an alarm-
ing riot; the shops of several gunsmiths were attacked
for arms by the rioters; and in the shop of Mr. Beck-
with, on Snow hill, Mr. Platt was wounded, and much
injury was done before the tumult was suppressed. For
this riot, Cashman, a seaman, was hanged, 12 March, 1817.
Watson, the ringleader, escaped to America.

this name, were incorporated by the French in Algeria
Spahis, Turkish cavalry. African horsemen, under
in 1834; three regiments of them came to France in

1863.

Spain (the ancient Iberia and Hispania). The
first settlers are supposed to have been the progeny of
Tubal, fifth son of Japhet. The Phoenicians and Car-
thaginians (360 B.C.) successively planted colonies on
the coasts; and the Romans conquered the whole coun-
try, 206 B.C. Population of Spain in 1857, 15,464,078;
of the colonies, 6,333,887. In 1867, 16,090,546; colonies,
6,384,131; Balearic Isles and Canaries, 551,434. In 1870,
Spain, 16,262,422; isles, 573,084. Madrid, 1870, 332,024.
Revenue: 1822, about 6,000,000l.; 1850, 12,722,2007.;
1860, 18,921,000/.; 1871, about 26,000,000l.
The Carthaginians, enriched by the mines of Spain (480

. B. C. 360

242

B. C. et seq.) form settlements..
New Carthage (Carthagena) founded by Hasdrubal......
Hamilcar extends their dominions in Spain.. ...238-233
At his death, Hannibal, his son, takes the command,

221; prepares for war, 220; takes Saguntum, 219;
crosses the Alps, and enters Italy..

The Romans carry the war into Spain; two Scipios de-
feated and slain by Hasdrubal..
Pub. Cornelius Scipio Africanus takes New Carthage,
210; drives the Carthaginians out of Spain, 207; and
annexes it....

218

212

205

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