Formerly the observatory was also charged with the inspection of all the nautical instruments of the navy, sextants, spyglasses, and binoculars. But as these tests were quite simple, requiring only a comparatively low degree of accuracy, it was found that this could be more economically done at the place of issue.

The following is a brief statement of the present organization and methods of work of the Greenwich Observatory:

The organization consists of

I. Board of visitors.

II. The observatory organization proper, consisting of (a) the astronomer royal; (b) astronomical assistants, 5 first class, 5 second class; (c) supernumerary computers, 24 in number; (d) mechanics and unskilled laborers, 9 in number.

BOARD OF VISITORS.

The members of the board of visitors are appointed by royal warrant, and under the orders of the council which originated the board its membership has a fixed constitution, as follows: Presidents and ex-presidents of the Royal Society; presidents and ex-presidents of the Royal Astronomical Society; five fellows of the Royal Society; five fellows of the Royal Astronomical Society; the professor of astronomy at Oxford; the professor of astronomy at Cambridge; the hydrographer of the navy. This board of visitors, by orders of council, is authorized: First, to direct the astronomer royal to make such observations as the board thinks proper; second, to inspect the instruments of the observatory and report to the Lords of the Admiralty upon the arrangements for keeping them in order; third, to make to the Lords of the Admiralty suggestions concerning the efficiency of the observatory; fourth, to meet at the observatory annually.

The duties of this board have never been performed in a perfunctory manner, although its methods of control have been from time to time modified, with advanc ing facilities for astronomical observations and printing results of the same.

It is now the custom of the astronomer royal to attend, by invitation, a part of the annual session of the board, where his annual report to the board is read and discussed. This report gives the results of the year's work in detail and the needs of the observatory in the way of personnel and material.

The board does not now practically direct the astronomer royal to make observations, but its influence in the work of the observatory is just as vital. The observatory and its instruments are, however, carefully inspected, and the approval of the board is necessary for the action of the Admiralty in making radical changes in the instruments or buildings or in the plans of work.

OBSERVATORY ORGANIZATION.

The astronomer royal is appointed by royal warrant. He is absolutely responsible for the character of the observations, the accuracy of the computations, the selecting and rating of chronometers for the navy, and the expenditure of appropriations for the observatory.

The first assistant is appointed by the first Lord of the Admiralty and is selected with a view of succeeding the astronomer royal in case of a vacancy in that position. He performs the duties of the astronomer royal in the absence of the latter and exercises a general supervision of the work of the observatory and makes observations with the various instruments.

The astronomical assistants are appointed by the Admiralty, usually upon the recommendation of the astronomer royal. They are charged by the astronomer royal with the responsibility of definite lines of work.

METHODS OF WORK.

The administrative methods are very simple. The astronomer royal exercises all the control and supervision of the work required by a reasonable interpretation of his instruction.

With the growth of astronomy the observatory has extended its work into other departments of astronomical research-in astrophysics and terrestrial magnetism.

are subjected to various temperatures in the "temperature ovens," and involves considerably more labor than the care and rating of chronometers on charge for rating and issue. Of this latter class at the time of the report referred to there were

It would be impossible, even were it not unnecessary, for one person to direct, in all their minutæ, these various branches of research. The responsibility for the various branches of the observatory work has been placed upon the assistant astronomers as follows: Magnetic observatory, with one second assistant and four computers; photographic mapping of the heavens, with four computers; solar photographs and spectroscopic work, with four computers; time and chronometer service; laboratory and longitude reductions; altitude and azimuth, and equatorial computations, eleven computers; transit reductions and determinations of time; meridian zenith reductions.

The eleven computers are distributed by the astronomer royal according to the needs of the various branches of work.

The astronomical observations with the various instruments are made by the first and second class assistants not otherwise assigned in accordance with the routine instructions issued by the astronomer royal. At the present time some of the older computers are assigned to the various instruments for observations. But this is owing to a temporary deficiency in the list of assistants, pending the formal adoption by the Admiralty of the reorganization of the corps. This plan, submitted by the astronomer royal to the board of visitors and by them recommended to the Admiralty, aims to make the position of the assistants more attractive by giving them increased responsibility for their respective departments of work, practically on the lines of the present organizations of the observatories of Paris and Pulkowa.1 The practical work of the observatory is at present divided as follows:

1. The transit circle; sun, moon, planets, and fixed stars.

2. Altitude and azimuth instrument; observations of the moon.

3. Zenith telescope; stars near the zenith.

4. Twenty-eight-inch equatorial; observations of miscellaneous objects and spectroscopic work.

5. Nine-inch photographic telescope; Dallmeyer photoheliograph; photographs of the sun.

6. Thirteen-inch photographic telescope; photographs of stars for the International Star Chart.

7. Magnetic and meteorological observations.

8. Chronometer testing and rating for the navy.

9. Time service.

NOTABLE ADDITIONS TO BUILDINGS AND INSTRUMENTS.

A new physical laboratory is now building and will be completed in the near future. It will contain a 26-inch photographic telescope, now nearly finished; the 24 inch Lassell reflector; the present 12-inch equatorial telescope, which will be used as a guiding telescope to the 26-inch photographic telescope.

The portion of this building which is now completed is designed and used as a physical laboratory, the measurement of the photographic plates for the star chart of the heavens, and office accommodations for the force, which has outgrown its present quarters. In the basement has been established a workshop, fitted out with a fine set of machine tools; a small 2-horsepower gas engine and dynamo for the electric lighting of the observing rooms and instruments of the observatory, and a chronometer testing room. The total cost of the building is limited to £3,200 ($16,000).

A new altazimuth instrument is also nearly completed, as well as the novel building in which it is to be mounted. This instrument will continue the important series of observations of the moon begun early in the administration of Sir George B. Airy.

1 Since the date of this report the reorganization of the observatory staff, which was then under consideration by the Admiralty Department, has been approved and adopted (1896) with the "view of strengthening the supervisory power and increasing the subordinate permanent staff."

The organization is now as follows: The astronomer royal, 2 chief assistants, 5 assistants, 8 established computers, and 23 temporary computers, the latter number varying with the needs of the observatory work.

At the date of the last report of the astronomer royal, May 11, 1898, six of the established computers had been appointed. The remaining two vacancies will not be filled until the positions now held by the remaining two second-class assistants shall have become vacant.

One of the chief assistants has general superintendence of all the work in the astronomical department, and one of the astrophysical work, including the magnetic observatory and meteorology.

Each of the assistants has direct charge of one of the departments into which the observatory is now divided, there being at the present time seven departments, although this number will eventually be reduced to five.

All the principal instruments and observing rooms are now equipped with efficient and economical electric light installment. The current is furnished from storage batteries charged by the dynamo above described. Its economy can best be judged from the fact that the annual appropriation for gas and fuel is only £80, while the labor required for its attention is supplied by the assistant mechanician without much interference with his other duties.

The careful study of this institution leaves an indelible impression of the economy and efficiency of its organization. The annual reports of the director invariably show the reductions of the observations as far advanced as the nature of the work will admit, usually but a few months in arrears. At the date of the last report to the board of visitors, June 1, 1895, the manuscript copy of the volume for 1894 was in the printer's hands. These annual volumes, containing in detail all the observations which are of such a nature as to be currently published, have grown to enormous proportions, and take up a considerable part of the observatory force in the mechanical work of proof reading. Yet in addition to these annual volumes, since the middle of this century, the following valuable star catalogues have been published:

THE NATIONAL OBSERVATORY OF FRANCE, PARIS.

The present organization of the Paris Observatory, under the minister of public instruction, representing the experience of more than two centuries of continuous existence of the observatory, amidst many changes of government, approaches in its final form closely to the ideal.

By its admirably constituted Observatory Council it secures the friendship and cooperation of the scientific men outside of its immediate personnel. By the legal organization of the Observatory Committee it secures the efficient and energetic prosecution of the scientific work of the observatory by giving the responsibility and credit of the work to the persons by whom it is actually performed. By the cooperation of the two it places the scope and character of the observations and the personal relations of the staff of the observatory to its director almost entirely beyond individual caprice. By the method of selecting and appointing the personnel of the observatory it secures the certainty of obtaining efficient scientific workers. The scheme of the present administration originated in a law (Presidential decree) of the 13th of February, 1872, and was enlarged and perfected by a similar decree of February 21, 1878. Below is given a brief synopsis, embracing the essential points of the organization under this decree. On account of the thoroughness with which every branch of the organization is treated, a translation of this decree is given in the appendix following this report, so far as it affects the Paris Observatory. The plan of administration comprises:

The observatory organization.

The observatory council.

THE OBSERVATORY ORGANIZATION.

The personnel of the observatory consists of the astronomical director and five astronomers (astronomes titulaires), constituting the observatory committee, the senior of the five astronomes titulaires being the vice-director of the observatory; ten adjunct astronomers and seven aid astronomers; a variable number of auxiliary computers and astronomical students; a financial secretary.

The observatory committee is composed of the director (ex officio president) and the senior astronomers, who are the chiefs of the departments in which the scientific work of the observatory is divided. The committee is required to meet monthly at a fixed date, but may be called into extra session by the director.

The observatory council consists of eleven members, appointed by the President of the Republic for the period of three years. Its membership is composed as

follows:

(1) Six members appointed, two each by the ministers of war, navy, and of agriculture and commerce, respectively, from persons distinguished for their scientific work.

(2) Four members elected by the Academy of Sciences.

(3) The astronomical director of the observatory.

The council is required to meet three times a year at fixed dates, but may be called into extra session by the minister of public instruction.

The director is the executive head of the observatory, and is charged with the proper coordination and execution of the work of the several departments; with affairs originating in the observatory committee and observatory council; with the presentation to the minister of public instruction of the estimates for the observatory appropriations, and a detailed statement of expenses at the end of the fiscal year. The heads of the departments are charged with the proper execution of the work of their respective departments, the assignment of work to the assistants and computers placed under them, and the proper care of the buildings, instruments, and material of which they have charge.

They are required to make to the director a monthly summary report of the progress of the work in their respective divisions; but scientific questions concerning the work are reported directly to the observatory committee. They are required also to submit to the director yearly a general report on the work of their departments during the foregoing year, the work which it is proposed to execute in the coming year, and the needs of their departments for its efficient execution. They also communicate to the director the condition of the reduction of their observations in time that they may be completed and published during the year following.

The observatory council meets three times yearly, at fixed dates, and advises upon the plan of work to be done at the observatory, the distribution of the personnel and material among the observatory departments, the annual budget prepared by the director from the reports of the chief of departments, repairs and construction of buildings and instruments, nominations and promotions of subordinates, and disciplinary measures of the observatory. The recommendations of the council, with the approval of the minister, become a part of the regulations for the government of the observatory.

APPOINTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC PERSONNEL.

The astronomical director is appointed by the President of the Republic upon the nomination of the minister of public instruction, who selects from a double list of two candidates each, presented by the Academy of Sciences and the observatory council, respectively. A vacancy in the corps of astronomers is filled in the same way-from a double list presented by the observatory committee and the Academy of Sciences. In both cases, however, the minister can present directly to the President in addition a candidate distinguished for his scientific work. The adjunct astronomers and astronomical aids are appointed by the minister upon the recommendation of the director, approved by the council of the observatory.

Up to the present time, however, vacancies have always been filled by the selection of the first choice of the nominating committee. The present director of the observatory is the first to be chosen under the operation of the existing law. His high scientific attainments and reputation as the foremost astronomer of France augur well for the future of the observatory.

METHODS Of work.

The scientific work of the observatory is divided into the following departments: 1. The department of meridian observations.

2. The department of equatorial observations.

3. The department of the international photographic star chart.

4. The department of astrophysics, time service, and meteorology.

5. The bureau of computations.

Besides these there is organized an administrative bureau, under the charge of the financial secretary of the observatory.

The present work of the various observatory departments is carried on in accordance with the plans adopted soon after the reorganization of the observatory in 1873, with some notable and important additions, and some modifications which the progress of astronomy has rendered advantageous.

The instrumental equipment of the observatory is as follows: The great meridian circle; the Bischoffsheim meridian circle; the Gambey transit instrument; the Gambey mural circle; the great equatorial coudé; the small equatorial coudé; the west equatorial; the east equatorial; the 13-inch photographic telescope.

Besides these principal instruments, there is a numerous list of spectroscopes, measuring instruments, etc.

The work of the department of meridian observations constitutes the fundamental work of the observatory, and comprises meridian observations of the sun, moon, planets, and principal fixed stars upon the great meridian circle. The head of this department has made as his especial work for many years a careful study of the constants of this instrument, in which he has used a number of ingenious devices. The most valuable of these is an improved Mercury reflection apparatus, by which observations of the nadir and stars by reflection have been made not only possible, but easy and efficient, notwithstanding the situation of the observatory in the midst of a populous region of the city and the close proximity of the steam tram cars and an underground steam railway. The importance of this improvement may be realized when it is stated that the disturbance caused by this traffic at one time rendered all fundamental work impossible.

The other instrument is a device for obtaining measures of the important constant, the astronomical flexure of the telescope, independently of the use of the telescope itself.

In the field of differential observations all the four meridian instruments are engaged in observations for the completion of the great Paris Catalogue, which will contain 32,000 stars and for which more than 350,000 observations have already been made. The work remaining to be done is the filling in of gaps caused by omissions and observations of stars whose positions show discrepancies due to proper motion or errors of record, requiring in all about 15,000 observations. As this is about equal to the average annual work of this department, the publication is confidently promised by the year 1899.

The most important service of the Paris Observatory to the science of astronomy in recent times is the origination of the scheme for making a photographic chart of