1 Public Papers of the Presidents: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1960-61 (1961), p. 1038.

'For example, Carl Abbott: “During the nineteenth century, the federal government was essentially a facilitator of western growth.... [I]t made resources available for private appropriation, investment, and development," The Oxford History of the American West, ed. Clyde A. Milner II et al. (1994), p. 470; Patricia N. Limerick: “Territorial experience got Westerners in the habit of asking for federal subsidies, and the habit persisted long after other elements of the Old West had vanished." The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (1987), p. 82; and Richard White: “The American West ....... is a creation not so much of individual or local efforts, but of federal efforts." "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A History of the American West (1991), p. 57.

The average strength of the infantry garrison during the year before the dragoons' arrival had been ninety-three officers and men; from 1835 to 1839, it numbered about three hundred. Post Returns, Fort Leavenworth, October 1833-July 1839, Records of the Adjutant General's Office, 1780's-1917, Record Group 94, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, DC, (hereinafter, records in the National Archives will be cited as RG NARA). Figures are from the Register of Contracts, 1819-1870, vols. 3-6 (1829-1839), Records of the Office of the Quartermaster General, RG 92, NARA.

* Kansas Weekly Herald (Leavenworth), Sept. 22, 1854. "Commissioner of Indian Affairs Annual Reports, 32d Cong., 1st sess., 1851, H. Ex. Doc. 2, serial 633, p. 314; Annual Report, 32d Cong., 2d sess., 1852, H. Ex. Doc. 1, serial 673, p. 380; Annual Report, 33d Cong., 1st sess., 1853, H. Ex. Doc. 1, serial 710, pp. 324, 344; and Annual Report, 33d Cong., 2d sess., 1854, S. Ex. Doc. 1, serial 746, pp. 310, 314, 318. The Fort Arbuckle data is from Monthly Precipitation Reports, Climatological Records of the Weather Bureau, 18191892, (National Archives Microfilm Publication T907, roll 423), Records of the Weather Bureau, RG 27, NARA; Albert R. Greene, “The Kansas River-Its Navigation,” Transactions of the Kansas State Historical Society 9 (1905-06): 322.

6 Register of Contracts, 1819-1870, vol. 12, pp. 79, 87, and 120, RG 92, NARA; Report of the Secretary of War Showing the Contracts Made Under Authority of the War Department, 33d Cong., 2d sess., 1855, S. Ex. Doc. 46, serial 752, p. 7. St. Joseph is the county seat of Buchanan County, one of the Missouri counties mentioned in the Kansas Weekly Herald, quoted earlier.

Register of Contracts, 1819-1870, vol. 12, p. 204, RG 92, NARA. Quotation from Lewis Atherton, Main Street on the Middle Border (1954), p. 23.

"Based on a comparison of names in the Kansas territorial census of 1855 at the Kansas State Historical Society with those listed in the Fort Riley post quartermasters' monthly Reports of Persons and Articles Employed and Hired, RG 92, NARA.

Based on comparison of names in the federal censuses of 1870 and 1880 and the Kansas state census of 1875 with those listed in the Fort Riley post quartermasters' monthly Reports of Persons and Articles Employed and Hired, RG 92, NARA.

10 Manhattan Express, Sept. 24, 1859, and May 26, 1860. "Railroad charters were published as part of the territorial legislative record, annually, at various places. Organizers of the Leavenworth, Pawnee & Western are named in Statutes of the Territory of Kansas (1855), pp. 914-920. Quotation from Charles N. Glaab, Kansas City and the Railroads: Community Policy and the Growth of a Regional Metropolis (1962), p. 57. Wilson's 1848 contracts for oats and corn at Fort Leavenworth are listed in Register of Contracts,

1819-1870, vol. 12, p. 157, RG 92, NARA. His sureties on these contracts were Hiram Rich, the post sutler at Fort Leavenworth, and Charles Perry, army contractor and owner of the steamboat Excel. 12 Robert G. Athearn, William Tecumseh Sherman and the Settlement of the West (1956), p. 18. Junction City Weekly Union, Sept. 16, 1865, and Oct. 13, 1866.

13 Report of General John Pope, 39th Cong., 1st sess., 1866, H. Ex. Doc. 76, serial 1263, p. 4.

"Junction City Weekly Union, June 22, 1867.

" In 1886 the Commanding General of the Army told the chairman of the House Committee on Military Affairs that “cavalry or artillery can be maintained with much greater economy” at Fort Riley “than at any other post in the United States." Sheridan to Edwin S. Bragg, Jan. 13, 1886, vol. 18, pp. 291–293, Letters Sent by the Headquarters of the Army (Main Series), 1828-1903, (National Archives Microfilm Publication M857, roll 10), Records of the Headquarters of the Army, RG 108, NARA.

16 United States Biographical Dictionary, Kansas Volume (1879), p. 143. Report of the Adjutant General of the State of Kansas, 1861-65, vol. 1, p. 1058. The federal census of 1860 and the Kansas state census of 1865, Riley County, are at the Kansas State Historical Society (KSHS), Topeka.

"Manhattan Independent, Sept. 22, 1866, and Aug. 10, 1867.

I Register of Contracts, 1819-1870, vol. 16, pp. 229, 241; vol. 17, pp. 8, 10, 13-14, 27, 33, 43-45, 47-48, 53-54, RG 92, NARA. Manhattan Standard, Nov. 28, 1868.

19 Secretary of War Annual Report, 1882, vol. 2091, p. 10; 1883, vol. 2182, pp. 45-46, 105.

20 Garrison strength from Post Returns, Fort Riley, 1866-1880, RG 94, NARA. Chief Quartermaster, Department of the Missouri, Register of Letters Received, vols. 29-31, passim, Records of U.S.Army Continental Commands, 1821-1920, RG 393, NARA; Army and Navy Journal, Dec. 4, 1880.

21

Secretary of War Annual Report, 1884, vol. 2136, p. 50. Sheridan to William C. Endicott, June 5, 1885, vol. 18, pp. 207-208, and Sheridan to Schofield, June 11, 1885, vol. 18, p. 213, M857, roll 10, RG 108, NARA.

22 Sheridan to Bragg, Jan. 13, Mar. 31 and Dec. 7, 1886, vol. 18, pp. 291– 293, 336-338, and 413, ibid.

23 Between 1886 and 1891, local contractors garnered $309,243 at Fort Riley; other Kansans, $96,070; and out-of-state contractors, $336,562. Register of Contracts, 1881-1890, vols. 2-4, passim, RG 92, NARA.

24 A five-year gap, from 1887 to 1891, in the Department of the Missouri Chief Quartermaster's Register of Letters Received (RG 393) blots out the period of most extensive construction at Fort Riley, but the volumes for the years just before and after show substantial outlays at the beginning of each fiscal year. Most of the appropriation for 1888-1889 was probably spent, or at least committed, by November 1888.

25 Rockwell to Martin, Nov. 24, 1888, in the George W. Martin Collection, KSHS.

26 Pond to Martin, Nov. 25, 1888, ibid.

"Atchison Champion, Dec. 6, 1888; Fort Scott Daily Monitor, Dec. 5, 1888; Hutchinson Daily News, Dec. 4, 1888; Junction City Weekly Union, Dec. 15, 1888; Lawrence Daily Journal, Dec. 7, 1888; Lawrence Evening Tribune, Dec. 6, 1888; Wichita Eagle, Dec. 5, 1888. Rockwell to Martin, Dec. 9, 1888, in G. W. Martin Collection, KSHS. Register of Contracts, 1881-1890, vol. 3, pp. 286-287, 310, 312, 319, 321, RG 92, NARA.

On the

In the Chemin-des-Dames we tried to specialize in

shell bursts. The modern war maker did not consider the photographer. Brady in the Civil War was handicapped in apparatus and had his subjects more concentrated. The present long range gun has enlarged the fighting area and trench warfare is very hard to picture. It is more like hunting game. If you're lucky you find it, and the Boche simply would not put down shells where we wanted them.

CAPT. EDWIN H. COOPER U.S. SIGNAL CORPS1

seemingly unstoppable series of events in the early twentieth century led to the outbreak of global conflict in 1914. Involving nations on five continents, World War I was the first war to employ modern scientific technology on a huge scale. Homefront activities saw the massive use of photographs and motion pictures. Advanced technology in military equipment, weapons, transportation, and communication was pioneered on the battlefronts. America was drawn into war as an equal world power coming to the aid of freedom and democracy in the Old World. European nations, however, suffered the worst toll of death, injury, and destruction. American troops, during the last year of war, helped to turn the tide of stalemate in the muddy trenches of France and Belgium. Allied victory was reached at the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918. This portfolio of photographs from the National Archives honors the eightieth anniversary of the end of the war.

World War I was a conflict that touched much of the western world. When the United States entered the war in 1917, every aspect of American life became involved and was, consequently, documented by the camera. Photographic coverage on

a comprehensive scale was recognized early as a necessity in recording the history of the war.

By the time of the outbreak of war, the circulations of illustrated magazines and newspapers in Europe and the United States ran into the millions. Response to the demand for war photographs, however, was limited by censorship, mainly for security reasons, especially in the European nations. Admittance to battlefields was forbidden to press photographers by both the French and German armies.2 Official military photographers showed war scenes that suited propaganda purposes. Some useful propaganda included photographs of atrocities committed by the enemy. As was the case during the Crimean War, depiction of the reality of grim frontline conditions was not considered good for morale. Official British, French, and German photographs were taken and released to the press and other governments. And, although there was usually only one official Canadian photographer in the field at any one time during much of the war, Canadian photographic output was extensive.

Responsibility for American war photography was first given almost exclusively to the U.S.Army Signal Corps. The Signal Corps Photographic Service was established in July 1917, becoming the Photographic Division in October of that year. Its work had military, historical, and educational uses and consisted of both still and motion picture photography. Military photography included aerial and land photography. Most aerial photographs were taken for reconnaissance and intelligence uses, from airplanes and observation balloons. The aerial work was the only real tactical photography in use. Most of the land photography was taken for historical and educational purposes. Historical photography consisted of documenting the army from recruitment and training, through camp life and embarkation, to landing abroad and all mili

tary and support operations. These subjects overlapped with educational photography, which involved the provision of official photographs to the Committee on Public Information for distribution at home and the preparation of photographic materials for training purposes.

In order to train its photographers, the Signal Corps established two schools in early 1918: one for aerial photography in Rochester, New York, another for land photography at Columbia University in New York City. Each combat division of the U.S. Army was assigned a photographic unit at embarkation, which consisted of one still photographer, one motion picture cameraman, and their assistants. Thirty-eight division units were sent overseas. At peak strength, the Signal Corps had 92 officers and 498 enlisted men engaged in photography, with a photo lab located in Paris. That unit had responsibility for procuring and storing photographic supplies, both from the United States and locally, and for the developing and printing of photographs from the field. In addition, most photographic units had field darkroom facilities, either in buildings or in trucks with electric generators.

The main Signal Corps photo lab in the United States was in Washington, D.C. It provided prints to the Committee on Public Information and to the public from U.S. Army photographs taken in the United States and abroad. Its workload was massive. From February 1918 to July 1919, for example, over 800,000 prints were made, 45,000 negatives developed, and almost 130,000 lantern slides prepared.

In May 1918 the air service, along with its aerial and other photographic operations, was separated from the Signal Corps.The Photographic Section of the air service and its aerial reconnaissance work was vital to military operations, especially during the major battles of the latter part of the war.Thousands of prints were made in just a few days to prepare for the offensive in the Argonne in 1918. Great attention had also been paid to creating a history of the air service during World War I. Photographs were widely recognized as an essential part of the air service's activities.

The Photographic Section came under the direction of noted photographer Edward Steichen. Originally commissioned a lieutenant in the Signal Corps, he arrived in France in November 1917 to organize aerial photography there and later transferred to the air service. Photographic Section units, composed of photographers trained in Rochester, were assigned to various aero squadrons and observation groups. During the war, air service photographers took eighteen thousand photographs of enemy positions, from which over half a million prints were made. A photographic section was expected to make more than ten thousand prints a day during peak activity.