they are only the school side of the well defined "civil" political body and area which it is the purpose of an increasing number of text-books to make understood.

CONSTITUENT MEMBERS.

The constituency of the school district community being in the great majority of cases specifically a body corporate for public school purposes, and as such embracing within well-defined local territorial demarkations practically all the electoral body of the State, it naturally follows that the qualifications for voting at a school meeting should be those required at an election for representatives in the legislature. Such, in general, is the case, though from the school district being a territorial unit occasionally a provision is found requiring a residence within its boundaries of 30, 40, or 60, or even 150 days immediately preceding the election.

There are, however, two exceptions to the general statement that the qualifications required from the voter in the school district meeting or election are those required of the voter at general State and local elections. One of these is that in a number of States women are allowed to vote, a provision which enlarges the right of franchise, and the other is that a property holding or tax paying, or child-having (either as parent or guardian) qualification is exacted, which seemingly restricts the electorate, giving it a tinge of self-protection as though the property holders were afraid to permit their possessions to the rule of the majority. Certain provisions for the endowment of women with suffrage in connection with school affairs are worthy of note. In Kentucky "any widow having a child 6 to 20 years of age, and any widow or spinster having a ward between the ages of 6 and 20, may vote at a school district election." In Michigan and Connecticut no woman, though 21 years of age, the usual requisite, may be registered unless she can read in the English language. In New Jersey a woman can not vote for the election of members of district trustees, though she may vote upon all other school questions. The case of New Jersey is an apt illustration of the two bodies politic within the same territorial confines, for at a civil township election a woman can not be permitted to vote, while at a school district election (the school district being a township) she is entitled to vote on all questions except for trustees, to which office, however, she is eligible.

The other occasional departure from the usual course of bestowing the franchise in this country is well stated in the law of Idaho, which recites that "none but actual resident freeholders and heads of families of each school district shall vote at an election [for levying a tax]." That this provision where occuring may not necessarily be made to work any particular injustice may be attested by the character of the law of New York, where every person of full age residing in the district for thirty days next preceding any school district election may vote thereat if he or she owns, hires, or leases real property in such district liable to taxation for school purposes, or is the parent or has the quasi custody of a child of school age having attended the district school for eight weeks within the year last past, or who owns personal property assessed on the last preceding assessment roll of the town exceeding $50 exclusive of exemptions. Frequently the delinquent payer of school taxes is debarred from voting, and in some cases of deciding in regard to borrowing money for building, a mere plurality of votes will not carry the measure at issue.

There are characteristics in the organization of the school community of the South Atlantic and Gulf Coast States, Texas accepted, that mark those communities as an exception. It is extremely doubtful if this phenomenon can be attributed to the social conditions existing in the Southern States which require the maintenance of two systems of public schools. But whatever be the explanation it seems legitimate to conclude that the school systems of the southeastern and southern coast are systems of State schools, while in Massachusetts, to take the most striking example, the school system is a town[ship] system, though most freely directed by the legislature to carry out reforms or inaugurate innovations. Five Southern States have a county board as the real local school authority. In one of these (Florida) the county is divided into three districts, and a member of the board is elected from each; in another (Georgia) the grand jury choose the county board; in another (Mississippi) the county board is composed of a member from each supervisor's district appointed by the State superintendent, and in the fourth and fifth the county board is appointed by the governor. The other States of our southern coast have a county superintendent as the local school authority, who is appointed in Alabama and Virginia by the State superintendent, and in South Carolina (under the old law) is elected by the people. North Carolina has no county superintendent, and its schools are under the authority of its "county commissioners," sitting as a "county board of education." The more local or district authority, as far as it occurs, is appointed by the county authority, except in Mississippi, where the "patrons" elect three district trustees, and in Virginia, where an electoral board, composed of the county judge, commonwealth attorney and county superintendent, elect the district boards for the school subdivision of the county.

AREA.

The "school district" as a part of the earth's surface, is constituted on quite different lines from the "Congressional township," and even from the original "towns" of New England. The area of a school district is a matter of convenience determined by its inhabitants, and its boundaries, judging from the ever present and numerous provisions for changing them, are readily manipulated. The school district is formed in one of three ways-either offhand by an authority of the county, by petition to such authority by certain inhabitants of the district, and subsequent vote, and finally, by local organization and subsequent notification of the county authority. When the legislature has fixed the boundaries of a district as coterminous with those of a 66 Congressional township," as in Indiana and Alabama, or as coterminous with those of a "town," as in New Hampshire, the school district system is said, in common pedagogic parlance, to have been abolished and the town system to have been adopted; but the original fact that each school community had but one "district school" must not be allowed to obliterate, another fact that any given amount of territory called a school district may have more than one "district school" if there are pupils enough to warrant them. Nor must it be forgotten that, when the increase of population in a large district called for two schools in one district, the ease with which a school district could be formed naturally invited the formation of a new district from the old one, and consequently a new set of officers was required in addition to the set already in existence. The effort to minimize the distance which the child would have to travel and the contrary evil of having two or more weak schools is apparent in the legislation of States having the district system. Even in the township school district system a deep stream to be crossed or a difficult road to be followed will sometimes make it necessary to carve out a district irrespective of township lines. The principle of the district system is that the school community immediately served should have charge of its school or schools; the principle of the township system is that a few persons should not have charge of the affairs of the school by which it is served, as it tends to foster petty local animosities, contrariness, and over economy. The school district meeting is the assemblage of a neighborhood, the township system or "school township district," as it is sometimes called, is the removal of such questions to a more varied assemblage or to a board. When the area of the school district is broadened so as to embrace a large county the assemblage of the school community is impossible and direct legislation by it is out of the question.

Before passing to the consideration of the formation of the two kinds of districts, the rather anomalous case of the State of New York must be noted. The subdivision of that State is done in a manner which distinguishes it at once from the town school system of New England, the district community system of both the Mississippi Valley and of New England, and the county system of the Southern States. The legislature has divided the State into school commissioner districts, and each school commissioner subdivides his school commissioner district into common school districts. There were, in 1894, 114 school commissioner districts in New York, each, on the average, containing 425 square miles, and 97 common school districts. no city may be included in any school commissioner district. Each of these two classes of areas, excluding the city district class, is solely a school area, and although the functions of the school commissioner are probably the same as thoes of the county superintendent in the South and West, the school commissioner is not a county officer.

FUNCTIONS.

But

Under the two preceding sections the members and the area of the school district community has been spoken of; it yet remains to compare its functions with that of the school township district.

In many States the school meeting is a legislative institution as conclusive in its decisions, so far as untrammeled by the law, as it is regular in its assemblage. Its functions are (or may be): (1) In every case to elect the officers required by law to be elected in order to supervise and accomplish the business of the school district; (2) to provide school accommodations; (3) in many cases to levy tax for the general support of schools, and (4) in some cases to decide questions regarding the administration of the schools of the district. In general, the duties of the meeting are to elect officers, pass upon financial questions, fix the site of schoolhouses, and vote upon changing boundaries.

The "school meeting" is not a feature of the township district system. In Massachusetts, for example, the town meeting elects the body that manages school affairs. In New Hampshire, however, where the civil town and the school district town are coterminous, there is a town meeting and also a school district meeting, which may be held between the 1st day of March and the 20th of April at the usual place at

1 See footnote 2 on p. 1460.

which town meetings are held. Pennsylvania and other States, whose school districts are townships, have no school meeting in the proper sense of the term, though clections are held for officers. In Indiana it has been remarked from the bench that the voters and taxpayers of the township have but little, if indeed any, voice or part in the control of the details of township educational affairs, although in contemplation of law it was otherwise; the voters may petition the trustee to locate a schoolhouse, but he may use his discretion in the matter. Compare the position of the Indiana trustee, whom the court called an autocrat, with the condition of affairs in the time of school districts in Massachusetts, where, in one instance, farmers who never came out at a Presidential election came forth with great alacrity during two years tɔ attend ten district school meetings made necessary by a contention as to the proper location of a schoolhouse. A peculiarity of administration in our southern coast States has been pointed out under the constituency of the school district of that portion of the Union (p. 1461).

But it is not in the manner that local wishes make themselves felt that the distinguishing characteristic of the two kinds of management of school affairs is evident. That characteristic is found in the taxable area, or, in other words, the financial arrangements proper to each of the two systems. Each board of local school officers has four functions to perform connected with (1) the reception of money from the State or county, (2) its disbursement, (3) the levying, and (4) disbursement of local taxes. To show these facts as far as given, it is convenient to arrange the methods adopted in each State in the following form, which is published subject to future emendation:

Maine. The town meeting elects a school committee and levies local taxes, which are collected as other taxes are. State money is paid to town treasurer. Disbursements are made upon written order of municipal officers on certified bill of items being presented.

New Hampshire.-Town school district meeting elects school board. The civil authority of the town assesses a tax at a rate fixed by legislature, and pays over amount to the town school district board. A town school district may raise money for support of schools, which shall be assessed and collected and paid over by town as other school taxes are. It may also raise money for purchasing sites and erecting buildings and furnishing and insuring them; but the civil authority, on application of the creditor shall annually assess one-fifth of such debt, such tax being held by the town (civil) treasurer to the order of the creditor. Each town school district has its own treasurer, who disburses school funds upon the order of the school board; it also has one or more auditors to examine the treasurer's accounts.

Vermont.-The town meeting elects board of school directors, and assesses a tax which is recommended by directors; but such tax shall not be less than one-fifth nor more than one-half of the poll tax and 1 per cent of assessed value of real and personal property, unless town, by special vote, increases the amount. Town treasurer receives money coming to town through hands of State authorities, and also the amounts raised within the town; he disburses these sums on the order of the board of school directors.

Massachusetts.-The town meeting elects a school committee and levies tax, which is assessed, collected, and disbursed in like manner as other town taxes. The money apportioned to town through State officials is placed in its treasury.

Connecticut.-There are as yet two systems in this State, the permissive town district system and a district community system.

In the case of the town district system the town meeting elects a school committee and levies tax estimated to be necessary by school committee. Selectmen (civil authority) and school committee of town deposit all moneys and securities "coming into their hands” with town treasurer, who also has custody of money coming from State officials.

In case of district community system the district meeting elects a district committee and levies taxes for establishment of schools, payment of teachers, and for construction, purchase, repair, and furnishing of schoolhouses, and in general has power to make all agreements and regulations for establishing and conducting schools not inconsistent with the regulations of the town, having jurisdiction of the schools in each district. But the [minimum] amount to be raised by each district is fixed by the school visitors of the town and the selectmen in joint meeting, and the amount so fixed is certified to district committee. [It is impossible to say whether this tax is in reality a town tax or district tax. The creation in Connecticut of a board of school visitors of a town was evidently a measure looking toward the consolidation of the school districts in each town into one large district, whose boundaries would coincide with those of the town. It may be said of Connecticut and of Rhode Island that the legislature considers the town as the ultimate political unit.] Each district has its treasurer and collector.

Rhode Island.-The town must establish and maintain schools, but may divide itself into districts. The town meeting elects a school committee and levies tax,

which is paid over to town treasurer, who keeps a separate account of money received from the State officials and from the town collector. [A proportionate part of money received from the State is called "teachers' money."]

If a town divide itself into districts each district elects a board of trustees and taxes itself to support public schools and to provide facilities, including buildings and sites, for instruction, but all district taxes shall be collected by the district collector (or the town collector, if the district so vote) in the same manner as town taxes are collected. Each district has its treasurer and collector, whose duties are those performed by the town treasurer and collector when handling school money. New York.-There are two kinds of educational areas (excluding cities) one of which appears to be merely the sphere of influence of an official, while the other, under the name of the common school district, is a body corporate. The common school district meeting elects 1 or 3 trustees, and levies taxes to supply deficiencies in teachers' wages after money received from the State has been exhausted, to supply buildings, sites, and other facilities for instruction, and judgments of record and other incidentals. The district has its own collector and may have its own treasurer, who disburses the money received by the district from the State or from its own levies, on order of the district school trustees.

New Jersey. The voters in the school township meeting (cities excluded from the school township) elect a board of education and may raise by tax such other sums as may be needed for school purposes, which is collected like other township taxes, and is held and disbursed by collector of township on order of the president and clerk of the board of education. The State tax comes to the township collector through the county collector by order of county superintendent of education. Pennsylvania.-Townships (and boroughs and cities) elect a local board, which fixes and levies tax for support of schools and for buildings, and also elect assessors. A member of the board shall act as treasurer, or a treasurer may be elected, who receives all State appropriations, district tax, and other funds of the district, and disburses the same on order of the board. [It is regretable that, in the digest of public schools, appearing in the annual report preceding this, by an inadvertency in transcribing notes the annual appropriation of $1,000,000 made by Pennsylvania was not mentioned under this State.]

Delaware.-Stated school meeting elects a school committee and votes the amount to be raised for free school or schoolhouse, but if the majority vote is against tax the amount required is raised by subscription. School committee collects its levies through its own collector or the collector of the hundred. It draws orders on the trustee of the State school fund when entitled to do so.

Maryland. The district school trustees are appointed by the county board of school commissioners, who are themselves appointed by the governor. The county board elects a treasurer and in case the State money coming into his hands (which is to pay teachers and provide school books and stationery) is insufficient the county school commissioners are directed to levy and collect a tax approved by "civil" county authority, which tax is collected as are other county taxes, but are eventually paid to the treasurer of the school county.

Virginia. The county judge, commonwealth's attorney, and the county superintendent are a board for the election of [district] school trustees, who estimate amount of money required for extra expenses of district and report same to county school board, which is composed of all the members of all the school boards, with the county superintendent as chairman. The county school board recommends to the "civil" authority the tax required for "county school purposes," which or so much as may be allowed the civil authority levies, and also recommends a tax to be levied upon a district which has reported that it requires for school purposes more money than its proportion of the tax for county school purposes will bring to it. This latter tax is also levied by civil authority. State money is paid by warrant to county superintendent, who indorses it over to civil county treasurer, who collects and disburses all county school moneys, but he keeps the State, county, and district money separate. Disbursements seem to be made by order of district board.

North Carolina.-County board of education, which is school title of "civil" authority, elects district committee. County levies tax to supply deficiency of money received by county from State and apportions all school moneys among the districts, which when so apportioned is subject to the order of the district committee. The civil county treasurer is the custodian of school funds received by the county from the State or from its own levies.

South Carolina.-A board of district school trustees are to be selected in a manner to be named by legislature, and any school district may by authority of legislature levy "an additional tax for the support of schools" beyond that levied by the civil county authority and apportioned to districts in proportion to enrollment in schools. County civil treasurer is custodian of all State and county funds. [Provisions of new constitution.]

Georgia,―Each county shall constitute one school district, which is under the

authority of a county board of education selected by the grand jury. The county board may levy a local tax to supplement the State apportionment after two successive grand juries have acquiesced in the proposition to submit the matter to the voters and two-thirds of the voters have voted for the tax. The State treasurer holds the State school money until it is wanted by county school district board for payment of debts due and awaiting payment on the 30th of April, 31st of July, 31st of October, and 31st of January of each year.

Florida. The county school board is elected by the people. It recommends the amount of tax to be levied for support of schools to county "civil" authority, by which estimate is accepted or modified. County "civil" collector collects money which is disbursed by county "civil" treasurer as school treasurer. Subdistricts may be formed having a board of trustees elected by the people; such districts may levy a special-school tax.

Alabama.-The county superintendent, who, if not clected by people, is appointed by State superintendent, is charged with the reception and disbursement of school moneys, but all local school funds raised by taxation or otherwise are expended in district where raised.

Mississippi. The patrons of the school (except in separate school districts, i. c., a municipality) elect a board of trustees. When funds received through State officials are not sufficient to carry on schools for more than four months the civil county authority may levy tax on all property and polls not situated within a separate school district, such tax to be collected and disbursed by county treasurer. Any municipality of a school district may levy tax in same manner. State money for school purposes is first paid to county treasurer and to treasurer of separate school district. Louisiana. The parish (county) school board is appointed by the State board of education. The police jurors of the parishes and the boards of cities, towns, and villages may levy a parish or municipal tax. Whenever one-tenth of the property taxpayers of any parish, city, or incorporated municipality shall petition the police jury or municipal authorities to increase the rate of taxation for the purpose of constructing public buildings, the body petitioned orders an election to decide whether the levy shall be made. The parish "civil" treasurer has custody of all school funds whencesoever coming.

West Virginia.-The district board of education, which is elected by people, determines the rate of taxation necessary for teachers' and building funds and outstanding debts. The amount received from the State and the levy for teachers' pay is called the "teachers' fund." State money is apportioned to districts through county superintendent. The county "civil" assessor assesses the rate fixed by district board and the sheriff or collector collects and disburses it.

Ohio. The several kinds of districts (city, village, or township) elect a board of education which determines the entire amount of money necessary to be levied as a contingent fund for the continuance of the district school or schools after the State funds are exhausted, and for other purposes. The money from the State comes through the county officials, and district levies are assessed and collected as county taxes are, but are paid over to district treasurer, by whom it is disbursed.

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Indiana.-A school township district board of trustees is elected by people, which board may levy a tax and has the custody and disbursement of all school funds. Illinois.-Each township is a township for school purposes and the school business of the township [auditing accounts and reporting statistics?] is done by a board of trustees elected by the people. But townships are broken up into one or more" districts having a district board of directors, and incorporated cities and villages have their own board of education. The board of directors of each district and the board of education of each city or village must levy a tax for support of schools; but all school funds are held by township treasurer subject to the order of the board.

Kentucky.-District trustees are elected by people. District may vote to tax itself but must appoint a treasurer. In cities the board of education may levy tax or request civil authorities to do so. Teachers' salaries are paid by county superintendent on certificate of board of trustees. The county superintendent appears to be the custodian of moneys received from the State; cities appear to receive their share of State money directly from State treasury.

Tennessee. The board of district school directors is elected by people; but in case it is necessary to supplement State and usual county funds in order to continuo school five months, the county court must levy an "additional tax," or submit matter to voters. The civil authority of incorporated places may also levy supplementary tax. The county "civil" trustee is the custodian of all moneys received from the State or raised in the county, but he must keep the school accounts separate from the accounts for civil affairs.

Michigan.-As in Illinois, there is a semblance of township district organization, but there is a district community system, each community having its district board of directors, which is elected by the school meeting. The board levies taxes for