liar nature of the sacrifices offered therein. Before the great truth became fully impressed upon the human mind that God “desireth not sacrifice and delighteth not in burnt offering," the smoke of the heathen sacrifice rose high into the air from within the temples; for the same pen roof which admitted the light, was also favourable to the peculiar forms of pagan worship.

In the early ages of Christianity, when those who had embraced its tenets were compelled, through dread of persecution, to keep their belief and their modes of worship as secret as possible, we find that religious assemblies were held in private houses, or even in public catacombs; but there is reason to believe that, as soon as the storm of persecution began to abate, the early Christians, zealous in the cause of their Divine Master, began to seek for the possession of public buildings for the celebration of religious worship. The intervals of persecution being short, they might not perhaps be able to erect churches, but they would seek to avail themselves of such edifices as were already in existence, and could easily be adapted to their purpose. Thus it has been found that the Christians were in possession of buildings, used as regular churches, before the time of Constantine, and that an edict was issued by that emperor for repairing, as well as rebuilding churches, thus proving that they were in existence at that period.

The Christian worship required not, like that of the heathens, extensive courts in which to perform their sacrifices; but consisting as it did chiefly of exhortation and prayer, a covered building of sufficient size to contain a large congregation, was all that was necessary for their purpose. Such buildings were the basilica, i.e., royal houses, apartments, or courts erected for the administration of justice. Constantine gave two basilicas, the Sessorian, and that in his palace of the Lateran, to serve as churches; and he afterwards built other churches after the same form. The ancient name of these buildings was preserved, and the new churches were also termed basilicæ, perhaps for the purpose of avoiding a name offensive to heathen ears, or it might be merely on account of their being designed after the form of those buildings. And when Theodosius had more firmly established the Christian religion as the religion of the empire, and had pulled down the churches of Constantine, which were already in a state of decay, with the smaller heathen temples, in order to use the materials for his new churches; he still retained the plan and the name of the basilica.

Nor could a more commodious form of building have well been found for the uses of Christian worship than that of these courts, the general form of which was rectangular, and divided into three or more parts by rows of columns parallel to the length of the building; another colonnade, at each extremity, crossed the former at right angles; in the middle of the end wall was a recess, in which was situated the tribune of the judge; and at that end of the building was formed a transverse division, by the discontinuance of the colonnades, which gave to the interior division the form of a CROSS. The recess formerly occupied by the tribune was found a convenient place for the altar; and that station it continued to occupy until artists were induced to alter the rectangular form of the building, in order to give to its exterior also the form of a cross. A transverse rectangle was now added, which crossed the former building at or near the middle of its length; the altar was placed in the intersection of the two, and that part of the church was afterwards surmounted with a dome or cupola, rising above the rest of the roof.

The body of the church or basilica was called the nave, perhaps on account of the early Christian constitutions, that the church should represent the ship of St. Peter. This term was afterwards confined to the space between the central rows of columns, while the lateral divisions were called aisles, and the arms of the transverse rectangle, transepts. The form of the cross was different in the churches of Italy, and in those which were copied from them, to that which was adopted by the churches of Asia, Constantinople, and Greece. The Italian churches have the transverse building placed at, or near the extremity of the main body of the edifice, and this is called the Latin cross. Most of the churches of Asia, &c., have the buildings intersecting each other in the middle, in such a way as to make the four arms of equal length; and the centre, like the Italian churches, is covered by a dome. This plan of building bears the name of the Greek cross.

Between the colonnades and the walls, the basilica frequently had upper galleries; and when these buildings • The Greek words for a ship and a témple are nearly identical.

came to be devoted to the purposes of religion, the galleries were appropriated to the use of females, who could ascend to them by means of steps cut in the thickness of the wall, being themselves unseen by the rest of the congregation. Seven churches were built or consecrated in Rome during the reign of Constantine, who showed himself laudably disposed, now that the religion of Christ had been established in his empire; to erect for its service edifices that should do honour to it, as well as to the Roman name. Nevertheless the pagan worship does not seem upon the whole to have been much shaken at Rome during his reign. The central parts of the city appear to have been "wholly given to idolatry," and we find that all his churches were on the outskirts, at a distance from the walls.

When the seat of the empire was removed to Constantinople, that city was gradually adorned and elevated to a degree of magnificence almost equal to that of the ancient capital. It was enriched by Constantine with many stately edifices, among which were the cathedral of Sancta Sophia, or Holy Wisdom, and a church dedicated to the apostles. We are told by Gregoire de Tours, that a magnificent church in Auvergne and another in Palestine were built by Constantine. His mother Helena also caused several edifices for Christian worship to be erected in the east; the most celebrated being the church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, and a church at Bethlehem.

Among the Latin churches, we find that the principal façade of the building was generally towards the west, while in the case of the primitive Greek churches, it is said to have been towards the east, that the priest in celebrating the service might have his face directed that way. The semicircular recess at one end of the basilica, had the name of apsis, which is a Greek word signifying an arch, and this was the place destined for the throne of the bishop. In front of the apsis was the Sanctuary, or Chancel, (which latter name is derived from the cancelli, or rails, which separated it from the nave,) elevated above the pavement, and approached by steps, but only by those who officiated as ministers. This sanctuary, which was at the east end of the building, contained the grand altar, and was separated from the rest of the building by a railing, or lattice-work. The ambones, or pulpits, were placed one on each side of the central division of the nave; and in the centre was the presbyterium, a place enclosed, and like our present choirs, appropriated to the deacons and chanters. Between the presbyterium and the entrance was the narthex, afterwards called Galilee; and this was devoted to the use of penitents. There were generally galleries over the aisles, with arcades in front, which have been supposed to have been a mere screen; but it is most likely that they were made for the purpose of supporting the roof.

We have already mentioned catacombs, as some of the first places where the meetings of the early Christians were held. The altars on which they performed their sacred rites were not unfrequently the tombs of some of their own community, who had undergone martyrdom for the sake of their faith. By degrees, as the remains of saints and martyrs came to be held in high veneration, and to be considered as gifted with peculiar sanctity, the custom became prevalent of erecting churches over their tombs; and a rule was finally established, never to consecrate an altar till the body of some saint had been placed within or beneath it. But, as these holy relics grew in importance and in the estimation of the people, it became desirable to advance them to some more conspicuous station, or one in which they might be more easily accessible by the number of pilgrims who came to visit them. A receptacle was therefore prepared for them in the centre of a lofty crypt, or vault, which was partly raised above, and partly sunk beneath, the level of the floor. A number of steps descending downwards led the way to this vault from the nave or transept; and other steps ascended from it to that part of the sanctuary raised over the crypt, while its contents might be seen from above through grated apertures. Immediately over the tomb of the saint was placed the altar, which, from its elevation to the summit of the crypt, became a more conspicuous object from all the other parts of the building.

Thus catacombs which first afforded shelter to the early Christians, and a place for the performance of religious rites, and which afterwards became their burial-places, were ever after visited as holy places, and afforded models for imitation in the receptacles which were made for the bodies and limbs of saints in succeeding ages. The church of San Martino, at Rome, was built by Pope Symmachus, in the *This word is derived from a Greek verb, implying to sleep.

year 500, over a subterraneous chapel which is still in existence, in which were deposited the remains of Pope St. Sylvester. There are also other crypts in Rome, at Ravenna, in the island of Torcello, at Verona, at Parma, Florence, Milan, &c.

The cathedral of Sancta Sophia, at Constantinople, after having been twice destroyed by fire, was rebuilt by Justinian, about the year of our Lord 532. It was completed in about six years from the time of laying the foundation, and the work was carried on during that period under the daily personal inspection of the emperor, who pleased himself with the idea that he had even exceeded the temple of Solomon itself in the magnificence of this splendid edifice. The plan of the Greek cross was employed in this building, the centre of which is covered by a dome of admirable struc

ture.

To the Christian religion may be attributed the rescuing of the remains of ancient architecture from 'ruin, and the revival of genius occasioned by the opportunity given to artists of employing their talents in the erection of buildings to the Divine honour. It is doubtful whether Constantine could have found the necessary supply of materials for all the buildings raised at Rome during his reign, but for the employment of fragments of the heathen temples; and in the adaptation of these to his purpose, he must in some measure have followed the design of the temples from which they came.

Thus, although some of the basilica of the heathens, which had been erected at an early period, might be equal in merit to the best works of the Augustan age, yet as those of a later date were doubtless constructed under the influence of the same bad taste which is visible in the baths and triumphal arches, so the churches also must have partaken of their defects: and this is really the case. In

several instances the columns in these churcnes have been taken from other edifices, and fitted to their places by the expedient of cutting off from those which were too long, and mounting on pedestals those which were too short, for their purpose; and this without reference to the alterations thus made in the proportions of the members of the order.

Amidst this capriciousness of style and disregard of the principles of architecture, there was a love for that which might surprise and dazzle the beholder; and this feeling seems to have been experienced by Justinian, when he so perseveringly superintended the building of Sancta Sophia, according to the design furnished by Anthemius, his architect. The erection of the dome of this building must have been at that period a work of considerable difficulty; to raise a dome on the tops of four piers was then a novelty; and the horizontal pressure and thrust outwards being very great, the difficulty of resisting it must have been equally so; and accordingly we find that the dome failed twice before it could be rendered secure.

The recesses, which were almost universal in religious buildings, may probably have led to the formation of high and narrow windows; for the convexity of the wall would not permit broad windows to be made with either horizontal or arched tops, on account of the voussoirs projecting obliquely outward between their abutments, and consequently not being properly supported. Narrow windows would therefore naturally be preferred; and to obtain a sufficient degree of light, it would be necessary to increase their length in proportion to the diminution of their breadth. The construction of the church of Sancta Sophia has been very generally followed: the great ecclesiastical structures of Italy, and the mosques of Mohammedans present a nearly similar appearance.

THE reader in his visit to the British Museum has probably inspected a gallery of antique marbles which bear the name of ELGIN. It may be interesting to say a few words respecting the origin of this valuable collection.

The Elgin marbles are so named after the Earl of ELGIN, by whom they were recovered from the hands of the Turks, brought to England, sold to the British government, and deposited in the British Museum for the benefit of the public.

These ma bles are considered by competent judges to be admirable specimens of the excellence of ancient sculpture. They belonged originally to the temple of Minerva Parthenon, and to some other buildings on the citadel of Athens, in Greece. They were executed chiefly by Phidias, a celebrated Athenian sculptor, about 400 B.C.

To make a collection, therefore, from these marbles, either by bringing away actual specimens, or by taking casts of such as might not be removed, was recommended, at the latter end of the last century, by the most eminent artists of England, as of the highest importance to the arts. It fell to the lot of the Earl of Elgin, the British ambassador at the court of Turkey in the year 1799, to appreciate this recommendation, and to Mr. Harrison, an experienced VOL. XVI

architect, to join in making it. This gentleman, while professionally serving Lord Elgin in Scotland, was consulted by his lordship on the benefits that might possibly be derived to the arts in England, in case an opportunity should be found for studying minutely the architecture and sculpture of ancient Greece. The opinion of Mr. Harrison was, that, though the public was in possession of everything to give them a general knowledge of the remains of ancient Grecian art, yet there was nothing which would convey to artists, particularly to students, that which actual specimen, or representation by cast, would more effectually give them. Therefore, though we might possess exact measurements of the public buildings at Athens, yet a young artist could never form to himself an adequate conception of their minute details, combinations, and general effects, without having before him some such sensible representation as might be conveyed by specimens or casts.

Greatly influenced by such counsel as was thus given, Lord Elgin proposed to his majesty's government, that they should send out English artists of known eminence, capable of collecting information on this subject in the most perfect manner. But the whole affair seemed to be of too indefinite a nature, and the cost of undertaking it too uncertain, for the

509

for other celebrated collections of marbles, the committee came to the resolution that they should not be justified, in behalf of the public, if they were to recommend to the house a greater amount of payment than 35,000, which, under all the circumstances of the case, they judged to be a reasonable and sufficient price for the collection. The sale was accordingly effected by an act of parliament, dated July the 1st, 1816.

The possession of some of the Athenian marbles was greatly desired by the government of France at the end of the last century, and in part accomplished, while French interest prevailed in the Divan. Other countries have not less coveted such a collection. We are told that the present King of Bavaria, in the year 1816, lodged 30,000l. in an English bankinghouse, in order to treat for the purchase of the Elgin marbles, if refused by the British Parliament.

Tuesdays and Thursdays in every week, and the whole month of September in every year, when daylight is usually steady and strong, are now exclusively devoted to artists and students, who seek to improve their taste and conceptions by attention to the ELGIN marbles in the British Museum.

In a future article we propose to state some further particulars respecting these invaluable relics of ancient

art.

THE vulgar imagine that everything which they see in print must be true. An instance of this is related by an Englishman, named Martin, who was thrown into the Inquisition for neglecting to pay due respect to a religious procession at Malaga. One of the Father Inquisitors took much pains to convert him; and, among other abuses which he cast on the reformed religion and its professors, affirmed that King William was an Atheist, and never received the Sacrament. Mr. Martin assured him this was false to his own knowledge; when the reverend Father replied, "Never tell me so: I have read it in a French book."

FROM the desire which mankind have had, in all ages, to preserve the memory of important and interesting transactions, many expedients were employed to transmit knowledge to succeeding ages, before the invention of writing. Groves and altars, tombs, pillars, and heaps of stones, were the representative symbols of past transactions, and memorials to instruct posterity. We find from various parts of the book of Genesis, that the patriarchs raised altars, where God had appeared to them.

THERE is an invisible pen always writing over our heads, and making an exact register of all the transactions of our life. Not our public conduct only, and what we reckon the momentous parts of our life, but the indulgence of our private pleasures, the amusement of our secret thoughts, and idle hours, shall be brought into account.-BLAIR.

ON OBTAINING COPIES OF ENGRAVINGS AND MEDALS BY MEANS OF GALVANISM. I.

MANY persons are in the habit of inquiring "What is the use of science?" They have probably attended a few scientific lectures, have seen a quantity of apparatus, and have witnessed various experiments performed by its means; but they are often inclined to look upon the former as "toys at rest," and upon the latter as "toys in motion." Such persons seldom gain any useful information from a scientific lecture, because they undervalue science, and know nothing of its vast importance in elucidating the wisdom of the Almighty, as displayed in the natural laws : of its vast importance in ameliorating the condition of the whole human family; in creating and sustaining our arts and manufactures; in supplying many of our wants, and materially increasing our comforts; such persons, in short, do not consider that one great difference between the civilized man and the savage is that the one has at command all the resources of science which the other has not.

When we regard the experiments at the lecturetable as miniature representations of the grand operations of nature, we then take a just and exalted view of the importance of experimental science. Nothing then is so minute or trivial as to be below our regard, because nothing in nature, however minute, is trivial. We know that whatever advantage we gain by our knowledge of nature can only be gained by an obedience to nature's laws; and in proportion as we are acquainted with these the more perfect will be our obedience; we shall not, in short, attempt impossibilities, but all our plans and proceedings will be guided by a perfect model which the Almighty has allowed us to contemplate, and partly, and by slow degrees to understand.

In proportion then as science improves, its applications to the arts and conveniences of life will be greatly multiplied. The numerous inventions of modern times are strictly due to our improved state of science; and in recording these inventions from time to time, we make a direct acknowledgement of the value of science, and the high estimation in which we hold its professors.

1. A short time ago we invited our readers to notice the wonderful fact of a picture, far more exquisite than could be produced by art, painting itself by the action of light; we have now to invite attention to a no less wonderful production,-a copper plate engraving itself by the action of galvanism, or a medal producing a perfect copy of itself by the same means. These, indeed, appear marvels, but they are nevertheless truths-marvellous truths,-which the reader, although unskilled in scientific resources, need not find it difficult to understand.

The reader is probably aware that a species of electricity, called, after the names of its original discoverers, Galvanic or Voltaic electricity, is developed by the action of a liquid, and two metals such as copper and zinc: that by means of this electricity not only are numerous striking effects of light and heat produced, but chemical substances are decomposed, and certain mineral bodies reproduced in a crystalline form.

The annexed figure and explanation will afford a very instructive example of the action of a voltaic battery, and will be quite sufficient to render our subsequent details intelligible. A is a vessel filled with a solution of common salt, which is a compound of chlorine and sodium; B is a tube immersed therein, closed at the lower end with a piece of bladder stretched over it and firmly tied; this tube is filled