they are such manifest indications of rudeness and vulgarity, that no writer who aspires to the character of a gentleman can deliberately stain his pages with them. Nor will there be much occasion to warn a reviewer against personalities, while his own responsibility for them stands in his view. In fact, he ought to be entirely ignorant of the author who comes before him, except so far as he is an author, or makes known his profession and designation in his title-page. I am even of opinion, that it should be a matter of etiquette never, on the strongest ground of popular report, to assign a work to a writer who has not avowed it. If he does not prefix his name, he has, probably, a good reason for not doing it; and the reviewer has no right to violate his secret, although he may mean a compliment in bringing him before the public.

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To conclude the most essential quality for the right exercise of this assumed magistracy is principle. As an orator has been defined “Vir bonus dicendi peritus," so a critic might be characterised, Vir bonus legendi peritus. His golden rule ought to be his duty towards authors and towards the public; and that, with a sound understanding, will keep him right, where wit and genius would err. Let him but sink all private and selfish ends, and divesting himself of prejudices and partialities, resolve to act the fair and honourable part, and the office will not lose its credit in his hands.

THE pay of the troops has been augmented under Alexander. The regiments, which in Paul's time were named after their colonels, have received a fixed denomination. The uniform has been gradually brought back to what it was before that emperor altered it. Squadrons of reserve have been constituted, and soldiers' schools have been formed near the quarters of the cavalry. Changes have been made in the manner of forming new regiments, and in the distribution of recruits. None of the newly-formed regiments receive more than 141 recruits, which are divided among the companies so that there are no more than 12 to every 100 old soldiers. In forming a new regiment, a company of soldiers is taken from each of eleven old regiments, whose places are supplied by as many recruits; and in this manner

the army may be augmented by 60,000 men, without any observable difference between the old and new soldiers. In time of war, every regiment of infantry that marches into the field receives, in order to replace the wounded and dead, 24 men in a company, or 288 in all, from the regiments that remain in garrison, who are replaced by

recruits.

The

The children of soldiers, recruits, and peasants, or persons attached to the staff, receive their dismission after twenty-five years. Dismissed officers preserve a third of their pay by way of pension. They are divided into three classes: 1. They who have served twenty years, receive a third of their pay, as augmented since 1802. 2. They who are dismissed without a cause assigned, receive a third of the pay of 1763. 3. They who are dismissed with consent of government, receive two-thirds of the pension of invalids.

A levy of two recruits out of 500 souls produces 68,253 men, whơ are to replace 57,882 withdrawn from the service.

Several ukases have been issued respecting the nobility employed in military service. Their dismission is not granted till after fifteen years of service, three of them as subaltern officers.

MARINE.

The Russian navy, though much augmented during the reign of the empress Catharine, had greatly declined at the close of it. Paul, who was fond of maritime affairs, built many new ships, and introduced various improvements into this department. The navy is an object of attention in the administration of Alexander, and several new regulations have been made respecting the sea-service. According to a report of the present minister of the marine, there ought to be in the Black Sea, 21 ships of the line and S frigates; and in the Baltic, 27 ships of the line and 26 frigates; but this number is as yet by no means complete. The galley-fleet is composed of 20 vessels: forty gun-boats are stationed in the Black Sea; and there are two flotillas, one in the Caspian Sea, the other at Ochotsk.

The mode of ballotting for the promotion of officers, introduced by Peter I. has been modified by an ordinance of 1804, which limits it to the ranks from lieutenant to rear-admiral. By this alteration the minister has acquired the means of recompensing extraordinary

merit.

A school for pilots has been created, and their condition on board has been ameliorated. That of the sailors has also been improved. They are divided into two classes, that of recruits, and that of men who have already served. For recruiting, those governments are selected which have many lakes and great rivers, or border on the sea. The age of recruits was fixed at 25; but since 1803, boys from 12 to 20 are received in the provinces on the Baltic.

The number of marines on board has been diminished, and that of sailors augmented. The corps of marine cadets has undergone several improvements. Much attention has been paid to the construction, of ships after models sent from England. The admiralty is engaged in procuring translations into the Russian language of the best works on the marine, and in the compilation of manuals for learners, The emperor has approved the formation of a committee for drawing up a system of the nautical sciences; and the marine geometry has already been pubLished. The organization of the admiralty has been simplified, and

the

the officers and sailors have received permission to enter into the merchant service.

The port of Kronstadt, which is the centre of the Baltic fleet, has been improved. At Revel, the old harbour is left for commerce, and a new one is constructing for the reception of 25 ships of the line. Roggersholm is the galley-harbour, and will also admit ships of the line. On the Black Sea ships of war will be constructed at Cherson, fitted out at Otschakof, and stationed at Achtiar or Sevastopol. Ships of the line can lie in safety in the road of Odessa. There are four admirals under the minister of marine, who have inspection of the ports.

COMMERCE.

The canals for internal navigation, which were commenced under the preceding sovereigns, have been continued by Alexander, and three have been completed in his reign; of these are the canals of Sjæss and Novogorod, the first of which is the prolongation of that of Ladoga, the second facilitates the navigation of the Msta to the boats which proceed from the Volga to lake Ilmen.

The works are in progress which are to unite the Volga and Neva, the Duna and Dnieper; that is to say, the Baltic and the Black Sea. The canal of Maria will form a second junction of the Neva with the Volga. The locks constructed at the falls of the Dnieper will enable large vessels to ascend and descend, and thereby open an internal market to the salt of the Crimea, and procure ship timber to the dock of Cherson.

The canal projected by Catharine II. and carrying into execution by her grandson, who gives it her name, will unite the two Keltmas, one of which, by means of communicating rivers, discharges its waters into the White Sea, the other into the Caspian. A canal of 20 wersts will form this grand communication.

The fisheries of the Caspian Sea have been placed under new regu lations, which have abolished a great number of abuses. A herring fishery has been established at Archangel, and some Dutchmen have been procured to teach their mode of salting and packing the fish. A company has also been formed, under the imperial patronage, for the whale-fishery, the factories of which are to be at Onega and Archangel.

The commerce of the Black Sea has particularly engaged the attention of the government in this reign. After having obtained from the Turks the free passage of the Dardanelles, it has issued several ordinances in favour of the foreigners who shall come to traffic in these countries, or shall send their goods to the port of Odessa. The customs have been diminished; the commercial towns have been allowed their particular governors, with great privileges to new inhabitants. A lazaretto has been built at Odessa.

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

The former institutions for public instruction having been found defective,

defective, a new system has been organized under the present government, of which the following are the particulars.

The establishments for education consist of circle-schools, gymnasiums in the towns which are the seat of a government, and universities. Each parish has, besides, a parochial school, maintained voluntarily by the lord.

Every circle is to have its school, the order and discipline of which are to be regulated by an inspector, nominated either by the university, or by the director of the government-school.

Every government-town is to have, besides schools for the inferior classes, a gymnasium, under the inspection of the director of the government-school, who has, besides, superintendence over the public and private schools.

There are to be six universities, with districts or circuits annexed to each. To those already existing at Moscow, Wilna, and Dorpat, are to be added new ones for St. Petersburgh, Cazan, and Charkow. In process of time, the towns of Kiow, Tobolsk, and Ustjug Weliki, will enjoy the same advantage.

Each university has its own administration. The rector is chosen by the general assembly of the university, and presented to the emperor for his confirmation. The university sends every year some of its members to inspect the schools of the circuit. The directory of the schools is composed of the curators of the universities, and other members nominated by the emperor. The appointments and rank of the professors of the schools and universities are regulated by the ukase. The universities grant degrees, after a strict examination. They possess internal jurisdiction over the persons subordinate to them; but an appeal lies from their decrees to the directing senate. They have the rank of the colleges or dicasteries of the empire. Five years after the foundation of the establishments for instruction, no individual can occupy a civil post, or be in the judiciary order, who has not frequented them.

Besides these universities and schools, there are schools established for particular purposes, such as the Academies of the Arts, the Schools of Medicine, Mineralogy, Navigation, &c. According to the new organization, the medico-chirurgical school of Petersburgh takes the title of Academy of Medicine, and enjoys a large increase of appoint ment. Government maintains 160 young men in it. The school of Navigation at Petersburgh has undergone alterations; 50 students are educated in it at the expence of government.

The Russian Academy of Sciences has experienced the generosity of the emperor. Several of its members are obliged to give courses of lectures in quality of professors.

Schools of Agriculture have been established by individuals in several parts of the empire, on the encouragement of the government.

The emperor has abolished the office of literary censors, but not the censure itself. The introduction of new books is submitted to the same regulations as before 1796. The inspection of books belongs to the governors, who may consult the directors of the schools; and no Vol. I. work

3 A

The academies are their

work can be printed without their consent. own censors. Books of religion cannot be printed at private presses; and the approbation of the synod is necessary for those which relate to the Greek religion.

Sír,

To the Editor of the Athenæum.

SEVERAL bottles, containing letters directed to me, have been thrown into the sea at different times by my brother, as experiments upon the currents. Three of these letters have reached me, and I transmit you an account of them, in the hope that others may be encouraged to repeat trials which we have found so successful.

The first was thrown over May 23, 1802, lat. 33. 46. N.

long. 64. 27. W. and found December 18th, of the same year, at the North West end of St. Salvador lat. 23. 30. N. long. 73. 30. W.

Its course, therefore, had been S. 37° 21′ W. 778 miles, or 3 miles per day.

A second was thrown over June 6, 1802, lat. 44. 40. N.

long. 45. 6. W. and picked up December 2, 1804, off the West end of the Bermudas, by a fishing boat, belonging to a place in lat. 32. 16 or 17. N.

long. 69. 49. W.

At that season of the year these boats seldom go above five or six miles from the land, and generally to the Northward. The course of this bottle is S. 51° 5′ W.

The third had a better passage; it was

1184 miles, or 1 per day.

thrown over June 25, 1806,
lat. 51. 48. N.
long. 27. 26. W.

and picked up about the latter end of September, on the Western coast of Ireland, near Erriss-head.

Its course is N. 76° 4′ E. 631 miles. 6% per day.

This last had been oiled, and though it had been so short a time at sea, was nearly illegible when it came to shore; whereas the others had received no other injury than that of wear and tear in the hands of the curious. I take this opportunity of returning my thanks to the gentlemen who did me the favour of forwarding them.

Should any of your readers be in possession of similar facts, they are requested to communicate them. The importance of the subject need not be pointed out; every successful experiment is a contribution to some future chart of the currents.

R. S.