erty. Savages have no property that can be called wealth, nor can the savage accumulate wealth. He cannot keep his game; he makes nothing; at death his hunting equipment is usually buried with him. The herdsman has many cattle, and at his death some one must care for them. Naturally, the members of his own family succeed to his wealth, and his personal authority also descends to his personal representative or heir, who is usually his eld

est son.

8. Laws of Property Begin. Thus laws of the inheritance of property originate among herdsmen. This property is movable, or, as we now say, personal. Land becomes a thing of value, and land-laws originate in the use of the land for grazing. Water, in the form of brooks, wells and springs, becomes the subject of customary rights. As a well is dug by severe labor, he who digs a well has a right to it for his family and his flocks.

9. Language and Ideas.-Herdsmen have more words in their language and more ideas than have savages. Shepherds are often in one locality for a long time; they watch their flocks night and day; they observe the course of nature and discover its regularity. They were the first to study the motions of the heavenly bodies, and they fancied that they saw familiar forms among the stars. Lions and wolves were there chasing cattle and sheep, and to the constellations of the stars they gave names. Centuries have passed, but the names given to the stars by the shepherds still cling to them. Thus the science of astronomy began. The language of shepherds expresses their ideas. The oldest poem in the world, the book of Job, describes the customs, the laws and the character of a people who were shepherds in Mesopotamia, one of the early homes of our own civilization.

10. Life and the Recognition of Rights.-Herdsmen have many more interests than savages, because they have more ideas and objects of desire obtained by labor. Such

man.

objects constitute wealth. Government among them recognizes and protects life and property and the comfort of The patriarch has more cares than the chieftain. It is a principle of government that as the interests of men increase and as they secure wealth by their own labor, government becomes more complex, or, as we are accustomed to say, has more departments; for a primary object of government is to secure to individuals and to nations their rights.

11. Importance of Rights.-A right is the most important possession a person can have. Human rights are the realities which government is instituted to protect. The word "right" has more meaning than any other word used in governmental affairs, and we shall constantly have occasion to investigate its signification. When we understand what rights exist in a country, we know exactly what is the government of the people of that country.

12. Effect of the Recognition of Rights.-The immediate effect of the recognition of rights is the exercise of government to protect them. A denial of a right is a wrong, and the suspension of a right, if not justifiable, is a crime.

13. HUSBANDMEN.-The peoples who cultivate the soil outnumber all others. They live in fixed homes; they divide the land and mark its boundaries with care. To remove a landmark confuses many interests and endangers rights, and is a crime; for the tiller of the ground is obliged to feed and clothe himself and his family by his own labor on a definite piece of ground, and if the boundaries are disturbed unlawfully the living of the family is in danger.

14. Crimes. Among the herdsmen the stealing of cattle is a crime, because the living of the family is thereby endangered. The tiller of the ground must be protected from similar injury, and his wealth is a definite area of ground. Land-laws thus become more definite among those who practice agriculture; many customs and laws

peculiar to an agricultural people would not arise among herdsmen. Each state of society has its legal system that is founded upon its own character. Different civil institutions, becoming different systems of government, thus spring up in the world.

15. Superior Knowledge required in Agriculture. -The farmer is obliged to understand the nature of crops, soils, culture and harvesting. He requires many tools for which the savage or the herdsman could have no use. He must understand the laws of nature so as to be able to make a living. His wants are more numerous than those of the savage or the herdsman. His ideas outnumber those of the other two classes. His language reflects his mind and contains many words. His interests are fourfold: those pertaining to his labor; those pertaining to the control of his fellows; those relating to his conduct toward men; and those relating to the God whom he worships.

16. MANUFACTURERS.-A fourth group of peoples are engaged in making objects of desire, and thus they are closely related to the herdsmen and to the tillers of the soil. Labor creates rights and transforms raw material, such as the skins and the wool produced by the herdsmen and the agricultural products of the husbandmen, into articles adapted to many human uses. The making of objects requires a large amount of knowledge in the maker. He has many ideas, and his language contains many words, unknown to the savage or the herdsman. With increased knowledge comes the division of labor and the recognition of industrial rights. New industries are created, old industries are improved. Simple tools are displaced by complicated machinery that never wearies and that rapidly transforms raw material into finished articles. In every step of this process rights are concerned. The forms of wealth multiply, so that they can scarcely be counted. The manufacturer depends upon