ALT-RANSTADT, PEACE OF. This celebrated treaty of peace between Charles XII. of Sweden, and Frederick Augustus of Poland, was signed September 24, 1706. Frederick Augustus, who was deposed in 1704, was afterwards restored to his throne. ALTARS, were first raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, who also instituted and regulated marriages, 1556 B. C. He introduced among the Greeks the worship of those deities which were held in adoration in Egypt.-Herodotus. Christian altars in churches were instituted by pope Sixtus I. in 135; and they were first consecrated by pope Sylvester. The first Christian altar in Britain was in 634.-Stowe. The Church of England, and all the reformed churches, discontinue the name, and have abolished the doctrine that supported their use.

ALUM, is said to have been first discovered at Rocha, in Syria, about A. D. 1300; it was found in Tuscany, in 1460; was brought to perfection in England, in 1608 : was discovered in Ireland in 1757; and in Anglesey, in 1790. Alum is a salt used as a mordant in tanning; it is used also to harden tallow, and to whiten bread. It may be made of pure clay exposed to vapours of sulphuric acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley; but it is usually obtained by means of ore called alum slate. AMAZONIA, discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1580. Coming from Peru, Orellana sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing companies of women in arms on its banks, he called the country Amazonia, and gave the name of Amazon to the river, which had previously been called Maranon. AMAZONS. Their origin is fabulous. They are said to have been the descendants of Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where their husbands having made incursions, were all slain, being surprised in ambuscades by their enemies. Their widows, reflecting on the alarms or sorrows they underwent on account of the fate of their husbands, resolved to form a female state, and having firmly established themselves, they decreed that matrimony was a shameful servitude; but, to perpetuate their race, they, at stated times, admitted the embraces of their male neighbours.-Quintus Curtius. They were conquered by Theseus, about 1231 B. c. The Amazons were constantly employed in wars; and that they might throw the javelin with more force, their right breasts were burned off, whence their name from the Greek, non and mamma. Their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the Great, while he was pursuing his conquests in Asia, and cohabited with him, in the hope of having issue by so illustrious a warrior; three hundred females were in her train.-Herodotus.

AMBASSADORS, accredited agents and representatives from one court to another, are referred to early ages, and to almost all nations. In most countries they have great and peculiar privileges; and in England, among others, they and their servants are secured against arrest. The Portuguese ambassador was imprisoned for debt, in 1653; and the Russian, by a lace-merchant, in 1709, when a law, the statute of 8 Anne, passed for their protection. Two men were convicted of arresting the servant of an ambassador. They were sentenced to be conducted to the house of the ambassador, with a label on their breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them to be imprisoned three months and the other fined, May 12, 1780.-Phillips. AMBASSADORS, INTERCHANGE OF. England has about thirty ambassadors, envoys, or other high diplomatic residents at foreign courts, exclusively of inferior agents; and the ambassadors and other high agents from abroad exceed that number in London. Among recent memorable instances of interchange may be recorded, that the first ambassador from the United States of America to England was John Adams, presented to the king, June 2, 1785; and the first from Great Britain to America, was Mr. Hammond, in 1791.

AMBER. Of great repute in the world from the earliest time; esteemed as a medicine before the Christian era: Theophrastus wrote upon it, 300 B.C. Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found in one year on the sands of the shore near Pillau.Phillips. Much diversity of opinion still prevails among naturalists and chemists, respecting the origin of amber, some referring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and some to the animal kingdom; its natural history and its chemical analysis affording something in favour of each opinion.

AMBOYNA. Memorable massacre of the English factors at this settlement by the Dutch: they were cruelly tortured and put to death on an accusation of a conspiracy to expel the Dutch from the island, where the two nations resided and jointly shared

in the pepper trade of Java, February 17, 1623. Amboyna was seized by the English, February 16, 1796, but was restored by the treaty of Amiens in 1802. It was again seized by the British, Feb. 17, 1810; and was restored at the peace of 1814. AMEN. This word is as old as the Hebrew itself. In that language it means true, faithful, certain. Employed in devotions, at the end of a prayer, it implies, so be it; at the termination of a creed, so it is. It has been generally used, both in the Jewish and Christian churches, at the conclusion of prayer.

AMENDE HONORABLE, originated in France in the ninth century. It was first an infamous punishment inflicted on traitors and sacrilegious persons: the offender was delivered into the hands of the hangman; his shirt was stripped off, a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand; he was then led into court, and was obliged to pray pardon of God, the king, and the country. Death or banishment sometimes followed. Amende honorable is now a term used for making recantation in open court, or in the presence of the injured party.

AMERCEMENT, IN LAW. A fine assessed for an offence done, or pecuniary punishment at the mercy of the court. By magna charta a freeman cannot be amerced for a small fault, but in proportion to the offence he has committed, 9 Henry III. 1224. AMERICA: See United States. Discovered by Christopher Colombo, a Genoese, better known as Christopher Columbus, A.D. 1492, on the 11th of October, on which day he came in sight of St. Salvador. See Bahama Islands. This great navigator found the continent of America in 1497, and the eastern coasts were found by Amerigo Vespucci (Americus Vespucius) in 1498; and from this latter discoverer the whole of America is named.

1664
1667

1680

1754

1759

Georgia settled by general Oglethorpe, in 1732
Kentucky settled
Canada attempted to be settled by the
French in 1534; they built Quebec in
1608; but the whole country was con-
quered by the English
Louisiana discovered by Ferdinand de
Sota, in 1541; settled by the French
in 1718; but eastward of the Missis-
sippi was ceded to England, in .
Florida discovered by Sebastian Cabot in
1497; re-discovered by Ponce de Leon in
1512; it belonged alternately to France
and Spain; ceded by the latter to the
English in
• 1763

1763

March 22, 1765 The obnoxious duty on tea, paper, painted glass, &c. June, 1767 The populace destroy the tea from ships newly arrived from England, at Boston, and become boldly discontented

Nov. 1773 The Boston Port Bill, by which that port was to be shut up until satisfaction should be made to the East India Company for the tea destroyed, passed March 25, 1774 The first general congress met at Philadelphia

1775

Sept. 5, 1774 The revolution commenced; first action between the Americans and king's troops see (Lexington) April 19 The colonies agree on articles of confederation and perpetual union, May 20, 1775 Gen. George Washington appointed commander-in-chief of the American arJune 16, 1775

mies
Thirteen colonies declare themselves
independent
July 4, 1776
[For the several actions fought during
the war, see them severally.}

The independence of the colonies is ac-
knowledged by France, and Franklin
and others are received there as am-
bassadors
March 21, 1778
American independence is recognised by
Holland
April 19, 1782

AMERICA, SOUTH. The Spaniards, as being the first discoverers of this vast portion of the Western world, had the largest and richest share of it. When they landed in Peru, A.D. 1530, they found it governed by sovereigns called Incas, who were revered by their subjects as divinities, but they were soon subdued by their invaders under the command of Francis Pizarro. The cruelties practised by the new adventurers wherever they appeared, will be a reproach to Spain for ever. Spanish America has successfully asserted its freedom within the present century: it first declared its independence in 1810; and the provinces assembled, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the people in July, 1814; since when, although the wars of rival and contending chiefs have been afflicting the country, it has released itself from the yoke of Spain for ever. Its independence was recognised by England, in sending consuls to the several new states, Oct. 30, 1823, et seq.; and by France, Sept. 30, 1830. See Brazil, Columbia, Lima, Peru, &c.

AMETHYSTS. When this stone was first prized is not known; it was the ninth in place upon the breastplate of the Jewish high priests, and the name Issachar was engraved upon it. It is of a rich violet colour, and according to Plutarch, takes its name from its colour, resembling wine mixed with water. One worth 200 rix-dollars having been rendered colourless, equalled a diamond in lustre valued at 18,000 gold crowns. De Boot Hist. Gemmarum. Amethysts were discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1755.-Burns.

AMIENS, PEACE OF, between Great Britain, Holland, France and Spain; the preliminary articles, fifteen in number, were signed by lord Hawkesbury and M. Otto, on the part of England and France, Oct. 1, 1801; and the definitive treaty was subscribed on March 27, 1802, by the marquis Cornwallis for England, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, and Schimmelpenninck for Holland. AMMONITES. Descended from Ammon, the son of Lot; they invaded the land of Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but they were defeated by Jephthah, 1188 B.C. They again invaded Canaan in the reign of Saul with an intention to put out the right eye of all those they subdued, but Saul overthrew them, 1093 B.C. They were afterwards many times vanquished; and Antiochus the Great took Rabboath their capital, and destroyed all the walls, 198 B.C.-Josephus. AMNESTY. The word as well as the practice was introduced into Greece by Thrasybulus, the Athenian general and patriot, who commenced the expulsion of the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only thirty of his friends: having succeeded, the only reward he would accept was a crown made with two branches of olive. 409 B.C.-Hume's Essays.

AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL: Established at Thermopyla by Amphictyon, for the management of all affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council, which was composed of the wisest and most virtuous men of some cities of Greece, consisted of twelve delegates, 1498 B.C. Other cities in process of time sent also some of their citizens to the council of the Amphictyons, and in the age of Antoninus Pius, they were increased to the number of thirty.-Suidas.

:

AMPHION. British frigate, of 38 guns, blown up while riding at anchor in Plymouth Sound, and the whole of her crew then on board, consisting of more than two hundred and fifty persons, officers and men, perished, Sept. 22, 1796.-Butler. AMPHITHEATRES. They may be said to be the invention of Julius Cæsar and Curio the latter was the celebrated orator, who called the former in full senate "Omnium mulierum virum, et omnium virorum mulierem." In the Roman amphitheatres, which were vast round and oval buildings, the people assembled to see the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhibitions; they were generally built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of stone, under Augustus Cæsar. The amphitheatre of Vespasian was built A.D. 79; and is said to have been a regular fortress in 1312. The amphitheatre of Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismes.

* Las Casas, in describing the barbarity of the Spaniards while pursuing their conquests, records many instances of it that fill the mind with horror. In Jamaica, he says, they hanged the unresisting natives by thirteen at a time, in honour of the thirteen apostles! and he has beheld them throw the Indian infants to their dogs for food! "I have heard them," says Las Casas, "borrow the limb of a human being to feed their dogs, and have seen them the next day return a quarter of another victim to the lender!"

AMPHITRITE, THE SHIP. This vessel, conveying convicts to New South Wales, and having on board 103 female convicts, with twelve children, and a crew of sixteen men, was driven on the Boulogne sands, in a heavy gale. Those on board might probably have been saved before the return of the tide, but, apparently through the captain's doubt as to his authority to allow the convicts to escape to the shore, and the uncompromising dignity of a lady passenger, all, except three of the crew, were drowned, Aug. 30, 1833.

AMSTERDAM. This noble city was the castle of Amstel in A.D. 1100; and its building, as a city, was commenced about 1203. Its famous exchange was built in 1634; and the stadthouse, one of the noblest palaces in the world, in 1648; this latter cost three millions of guilders, a prodigious sum at that time. It is built upon 13,659 piles, and the magnificence of the structure is, for its size, both in external and internal grandeur, perhaps without a parallel in Europe. Amsterdam surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince invaded Holland in favor of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French were admitted without resistance, Jan. 18, 1795. The ancient government was restored in November, 1813. See Holland. AMULETS, OR CHARMS. All nations have been fond of amulets. The Egyptians had a great variety; so had the Jews, Chaldeans, and Persians. Among the Greeks, they were much used in exciting or conquering the passion of love. They were also in estimation among the Romans.-Pliny. Ovid. Among the Christians of early ages, amulets were made of the wood of the true cross, about A.D. 328. They have been sanctioned by religion and astrology, and even in modern times by medical and other sciences-witness the anodyne necklace, &c. The pope and Catholic clergy make and sell amulets and charms even to this day.—Ashe. ANABAPTISTS. This sect arose about A.D. 1525, and was known in England before 1549. John of Leyden, Muncer, Storck, and other German enthusiasts, about the time of the reformation, spread its doctrines. The anabaptists of Munster (who are, of course, properly distinguished from the existing mild sect of this name in England) taught that infant baptism was a contrivance of the devil, that there is no original sin, that men have a free will in spiritual things, and other doctrines still more wild and absurd. Munster they called Mount Zion, and one Mathias, a baker, was declared to be the king of Zion. Their enthusiasm led them to the maddest practices, and they, at length, rose in arms under pretence of gospel liberty. Munster was taken about fifteen months afterwards, and they were all put to death. The anabaptists of England differ from other Protestants in little more than the not baptizing children, as appears by a confession of faith, published by the representatives of above one hundred of their congregations, in 1689.

ANACREONTIC VERSE. Commonly of the jovial or Bacchanalian strain, named after Anacreon, of Teos, the Greek lyric poet, about 510 B.c. The odes of Anacreon are much prized; their author lived in a constant round of drunkenness and debauchery, and was choked by a grape stone in his eighty-fifth year.—Stanley's Lives of the Poets.

ANAGRAM, a transposition of the letters of a name or sentence; as from Mary, the name of the Virgin, is made army. On the question put by Pilate to our Saviour, "Quid est veritas 2" we have this admirable anagram, "Est vir qui adest." The French are said to have introduced the art, as now practised, in the reign of Charles IX., about the year 1560.-Henault.

ANATHEMAS. The word had four significations among the Jews: the anathema, or curse, was the devoting some person or thing to destruction. We have a remarkable instance of it in the city of Jericho (see Joshua vi. 17). Anathemas were used by the primitive churches, A.D. 387. Such ecclesiastical denunciations caused great terror in England up to the close of Elizabeth's reign.-Rapin. The church anathema, or curse, with excommunication, and other severities of the Romish religion, are still practised in catholic countries to this day.-Ashe. ANATOMY. The structure of the human body was made part of the philosophical investigations of Plato and Xenophon; and it became a branch of medical art under Hippocrates, about 420 B.c. But Erasistratus and Herophilus may be regarded as being the fathers of anatomy: they were the first to dissect the human form, as anatomical research had been confined to brutes only: it is mentioned that they practised upon the bodies of living criminals, about 300 and 293 B.C. In England,

the schools were supplied with subjects unlawfully exhumed from graves; and, until lately, the bodies of executed criminals were ordered for dissection. See next article. The first anatomical plates were designed by Vesalius, about A.D. 1538. The discoveries of Harvey were made in 1616. The anatomy of plants was discovered in 1680.-Freind's History of Physic.

ANATOMY LAWS. The first law regulating the science was enacted in 1540; and laws relating to it, and encouraging schools, have been framed, altered, and amended in almost every reign to the present time. A new statute was enacted, regulating schools of anatomy, 3 William IV. 1832. This act repealed so much of the 9th of George IV. as still empowered the judges to direct the body of a murderer, after execution, to be dissected; "but the court may direct that such criminal be buried within the precincts of the jail."-Statutes at large.

ANCHORITES. Paul, Anthony, and Hilarion, were the first anchorites. Many of the early anchorites lived in caves and deserts, and practised great austerities. Some were analogous to the fakeers, who impose voluntary punishments upon themselves as atonement for their sins, and as being acceptable to GOD; and their modes of torture were often extravagant and criminal. The order first arose in the fourth century. ANCHORS FOR SHIPS, are of ancient use, and the invention belongs to the Tuscans. -Pliny. The second tooth, or flake, was added by Anacharsis, the Scythian.Strabo. Anchors were first forged in England A.D. 578. The anchors of a first-rate ship of war (of which such a ship has four) will weigh 90 cwt. each, and each of them will cost £450.-Phillips.

ANCIENT HISTORY AND MUSIC. Ancient history commenced in the obscurity of tradition, about 1800 B.C., and is considered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, A.D. 476. Modern history began with Mahomet or Charlemagne, and has lasted about 1200 or 1000 years, commencing in almost as great obscurity as ancient history, owing to the ignorance of those times, A.D. 600 and 800. ANCIENT MUSIC refers to such musical compositions as appeared from the time of Palestrini to that of Bach; that is, from the year 1529 to 1684. See History-Music.

ANDRE', MAJOR, HIS EXECUTION. This gallant and lamented soldier was an adjutant-general in the British army, and was taken on his return from a secret expedition to the American general Arnold, in disguise, Sept. 23, 1780. He was sentenced to execution by a court of general Washington's officers, at Tappan, New York, and suffered death Oct. 2, following. André's remains were disinterred at Tappan for removal to England in a sarcophagus, Aug. 10, 1821, and are now interred in Westminster abbey.

ANDREW, ST., martyred by crucifixion, Nov. 30, A.D. 69, at Patræ, in Achaia. The festival was instituted about 359. Andrew is the titular saint of Scotland, owing to Hungus, the Pictish prince, having dreamed that the saint was to be his friend in a pending battle with the Northumbrians; and accordingly a St. Andrew's X appeared in the air during the fight, and Hungus conquered. The collar of an order of knighthood, founded on this legend, is formed of thistles (not to be touched), and of rue (an antidote against poison); the motto is Nemo me impune lacessit. It was instituted by Achaius in the year 809, and was revived by king James V. in 1540. See Thistle. ANEMOMETER, to measure the strength and velocity of the wind, was invented by Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind to be 93 miles per hour. See article Winds.

ANGELIC KNIGHTS OF ST. GEORGE. Instituted in Greece, A.D. 456. The Angelici were instituted by Angelus Comnenus, emperor of Constantinople, 1191. The Angelicæ, an order of nuns, was founded at Milan by Louisa Torelli, A.D. 1534. ANGELS. Authors are divided as to the time of the creation of angels. Some will have it to have been at the same time with our world; others, before all ages, that is, from eternity. This latter is Origen's opinion.-Cave's Hist. Literat. The Jews had ten orders of angels; and the popes have recognised nine choirs and three hierarchies. ANGELS, IN COMMERCE. An angel was an ancient gold coin, weighing four pennyweights, and was valued at 6s. 8d. in the reign of Henry VI., and at 10s. in the reign of Elizabeth, 1562. The angelot was an ancient gold coin, value half an angel, struck at Paris when that capital was in the hands of the English, in the reign of Henry VI., 1413.-Wood.