kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs, Uffa, assumed the title of king, A.D. 575; the kingdom ceased in 792. See Britain. ANGRIA. This famous pirate's fort, on the coast of Malabar, was invested by admiral Watson, and destroyed. The pirate, his wife, and family, were made prisoners; and great quantities of stores which were found in the fort, and several ships in the harbour, which he had taken from the East India Company, were seized, 1756. ANHALT, THE HOUSE OF, in Germany, is very ancient and distinguished: the best genealogists deduce its origin from Berenthobaldus, who made war upon the Thuringians in the sixth century. In 1586, the principality was divided among the five sons of Joachim Ernest, and hence the five branches of this house, of which Anhalt-Dessau and Anhalt-Bernburg are the principal.-Beatson. The ANHOLT, ISLAND OF. Owing to the injury done by the Danish cruizers to British commerce, this island was taken possession of by England, in the last war. Danes made an attempt to regain it with a force which exceeded 4000 men, but were gallantly repulsed. The British force opposed to them did not amount to more than 150, yet triumphed in a close and desperate engagement, March 14, 1811. ANIMALCULE, in the semen of animals, first discovered by Leuwenhoek, 1677. His researches produced the most astonishing revelations of nature. In the milt of the cod-fish are contained, he says, more living animalcules than there are people on the whole earth. A mite was anciently thought the limit of littleness; but there are animals 27,000,000 of times smaller than a mite. A thousand millions of animalculæ, discovered in common water, are not altogether larger than a grain of sand. Yet their multitude sometimes gives the water, in the summer months, a pale red, or a yellow, tinge.-Experiments of Leuwenhoek, 1677. ANIMAL LIFE. The body of man was designed for ninety years, but the average duration of human life falls infinitely short of that patriarchal age. "The days of our years are three-score years and ten; and if by reason of strength they be four-score years, yet is their strength labour and sorrow; for it is soon cut off, and we fly away."-Psalm xc. ver. 10. Without referring to ante- or post-diluvians, or to the authority of the Scriptures, many extraordinary instances of length of human life will be found under the article Longevity. The following is the duration of life in some of the lower animals : YEARS. The Horse .8 to 32 Mule YEARS. Swine Ox Ass 25 Goose 30 to 100 100 50 to 200 Ashe mentions many other animals, whose ages, however, are too well known to be noticed here; he also mentions several, the duration of which he himself deems extreme and uncertain. ANIMAL MAGNETISM. This deception was introduced by father Hehl, at Vienna, about 1774; and had wonderful success in France, about 1788. It had its dupes in England also, in 1789; but it exploded a few years afterwards. It was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means of sympathetic affection between the sick person and the operator. The effect on the patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of the fingers and features of the operator, he placing himself immediately before the patient, whose eyes were to be fixed on his. After playing in this manner on the imagination and enfeebled mind of the sick, and performing a number of distortions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. See Galvanism, Mesmerism, &c. ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO. Several laws have been enacted for the prevention of cruelty to animals. The late Mr. Martin, M.P., zealously laboured as a senator to repress this odious offence; and a society, in London, which was established in 1824, effects much good in this way. See Cruelty to Animals' Society. Mr. Martin's act passed 3 Geo. IV., 1822. See statute 7 & 8 Geo. IV., June, 1727; statute 5 & 6 Will. IV., Sept. 1835; statute for Ireland, 1 Vict., July, 1837. ANJOU, or BEAUGÉ, BATTLE OF, fought between the English and French armies; the latter commanded by the dauphin of France, who defeated the English, on whose side the duke of Clarence and 1500 men perished on the field: the duke was slain by sir Allan Swinton, a Scotch knight, who commanded a company of men at arms; and the earls of Somerset, Dorset, and Huntingdon, were taken prisoners. This was the first battle that turned the tide of success against the English, April 3, 1421. The university of Anjou, so celebrated for learning, was founded in 1349. ANNATES, OR FIRST FRUITS. They were first exacted by Antonius, bishop of Ephesus; but the exaction was condemned by the council of Ephesus, A.D. 400. Clement V. was the first pope who imposed annates on England, 1306. See First Fruits. ANNIHILATION. The doctrine of annihilation was unknown to the Hebrews, Greeks, and Latins. The ancient philosophers denied annihilation; the first notions of which are said to have arisen from the Christian theology.—Dr. Burnet. ANNO DOMINI. The year of our Lord; used by the Christian world, and abbreviated, A.D. This is the computation of time from the incarnation of our Saviour, and is called the vulgar era; first adopted in the year 525. See Era. Charles III. of Germany was the first who added "in the year of our Lord" to his reign, in 879. ANNUITIES, OR PENSIONS, were first granted in 1512, when 20l. were given to a lady of the court for services done; and 6l. 138. 4d. for the maintenance of a gentleman, 1536. The sum of 131. 68. 8d. was deemed competent to support a gentleman in the study of the law, 1554. An act was passed empowering the government to borrow one million sterling upon an annuity of fourteen per cent., 4 & 6 William and Mary, 1691-3. This mode of borrowing soon afterwards became general among civilised governments. An annuity of 28. 11d. per annum, accumulating at 10 per cent., amounts in 100 years to 20,000l. ANNUNCIATION OF THE VIRGIN MARY. This festival commemorates the Virgin's miraculous conception, denoting the tidings brought her by the angel Gabriel: its origin is referred variously by ecclesiastical writers to the fourth and seventh century. The day, the 25th of March, is also called Lady-day, which see. In England, before the alteration of the style, Sept. 3, 1752, our year began on the 25th of March, a reckoning which we still preserve in certain ecclesiastical computations. The religious order of the Annunciation was instituted in 1232; and the military order, in Savoy, by Amadeus, count of Savoy, in memory of Amadeus I., who had bravely defended Rhodes against the Turks, 1355. ANOINTING. The ceremony observed at the inauguration of kings, bishops, and other eminent personages, and a very ancient custom. It was first used at coronations in England on Alfred the Great, in 872; and in Scotland, on Edgar, in 1098. The religious rite is referred to a very early date in the Christian church; by some authors, to 550, when it was practised with consecrated oil, as extreme unction (one of the sacraments of the Roman Catholic church) on dying persons, and persons in extreme danger of death, and is done so to the present day. ANONYMOUS LETTERS. The sending of letters denouncing persons, or demanding money, or using threats, made felony by the Black Act, 9 Geo. I., 1722.-Statutes at large. Several persons have been executed in England for sending anonymous letters, imputing crimes and making exposures; and the present laws against these practices are still very severe, but not more so than just. ANTARCTIC. The south pole is so called, because it is opposite to the north or arctic pole. A continent of 1700 miles of coast from east to west, and 64 to 66 degrees south, was discovered in the Antarctic Ocean by French and American navigators on the same day, Jan. 9, 1840; a coincidence the more singular, as the discoverers were at a distance from each other of 720 miles. Mr. Briscow, of the navy, fell in with land, which he coasted for 300 miles in lat. 67, long. 50, in the year 1830. ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, the number of people in the ancient world, or world as it existed previous to the Flood, reached to the enormous amount of 549,755 millions, in the year of the world 1482. Burnet has supposed that the first human pair might have left, at the end of the first century, ten married couples; and from these, allowing them to multiply in the same decuple proportion as the first pair did, would rise, in 1500 years, a greater number of persons than the earth was capable of holding. He therefore suggests a quadruple multiplication only; and then exhibits the following table of increase during the first sixteen centuries that preceded the Flood:-- This calculation, although the most moderate made, exceeds, it will be seen, by at least ten times, the present number of mankind, which, at the highest estimate, amounts to only a thousand millions. ANTHEMS, OR HYMNS. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, and St. Ambrose, were the first who composed them, about the middle of the fourth century.-Lenglet. They were introduced into the Church service in 386.-Baker. Ignatius is said to have introduced them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose into the Western Church. They were introduced into the reformed Churches in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565. ANTHESPHORIAN FESTIVALS. Celebrated by the ancient Greeks in honour of Proserpine. They adorned the temples of this goddess with all kinds of flowers, because when Proserpine was carried off by Pluto, she was employed in gathering flowers in the plains of Enna. The ancients believed that Proserpine presided over the death of mankind. ANTHROPOPHAGI. Eaters of human flesh have existed in all ages of the world. The Cyclops and Lestrygones are represented as man-eaters, by Homer; and the Essedonian Scythians were so, according to Herodotus. Diogenes asserted that we might as well eat the flesh of men, as that of other animals; and the practice still exists in Africa, the South Sea Islands, &c. In order to make trial whether there was any repugnance in nature to the feeding of an animal on its own species, Leonardus Floroventius fed a hog with hog's flesh, and a dog with that of a dog, when he found the bristles of the hog to fall off, and the dog to become full of ulcers. The annals of Milan furnish an extraordinary instance of anthropophagy a Milanese woman, named Elizabeth, from a depraved appetite, had an invincible inclination to human flesh; she enticed children to her house, and killed and salted them; and on a discovery being made, she was broken on the wheel and burnt, in 1519. Various more recent instances of this kind have occurred. See Cannibalism. ANTICHRIST. The name given by way of eminence by St. Paul to the Man of Sin, who, at the latter end of the world, is to appear very remarkably in opposition to Christianity. His reign, it is supposed, will continue three years and a half, during which time there will be a terrible persecution. This is the opinion of the Catholics; but the Protestants, as they differ from them, so they differ from themselves. Grotius and Dr. Hammond suppose the time past, and the characters to be finished in the persons of Caligula, Simon Magus, and the Gnostics. A general opinion prevailed, that the pope was the true antichrist, and, at the council held at Gap in 1603, they inserted in their confessions of faith, an article whereby the pope was declared to be antichrist.-Brown. ANTIMONY. This mineral was very early known, and applied by the ancients to various purposes. It was used as paint to blacken both men's and women's eyes, as appears from 2 Kings ix. 30, and Jeremiah iv. 30, and in eastern countries is thus used to this day. When mixed with lead, it makes types for printing; and in physic its uses are so various that, according to its preparation, alone, or in company with one or two associates, it is sufficient to answer all a physician desires in an apothecary's shop.-Boyle. We are indebted to Basil Valentine for the earliest account of various processes, about 1410.-Priestley. ANTINOMIAN. The name first applied by Luther to John Agricola, in 1538. The Antinomians trust in the gospel, and not in their deeds; and hold that crimes are not crimes when committed by them; that their own good works are of no effect; that no man should be troubled in conscience for sin; that God does not love any man for his holiness; and other doctrines equally absurd. ANTIOCH, built by Seleucus, after the battle of Ipsus, 301 B.C. In one day, 100,000 of its people were slain by the Jews, 145 B.C. In this city, once the capital of Syria, the disciples of the Redeemer were first called Christians. The Era of Antioch is much used by the early Christian writers attached to the Churches of Antioch and Alexandria: it placed the creation 5492 years B.C. ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that antipodes existed, about 368 B.C. Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate of pope Zachary, is said to have denounced a bishop as a heretic for maintaining this doctrine, A.D. 741. The antipodes of England lie to the south-east of New Zealand; and near the spot is a small island, called Antipodes Island.-Brookes. ANTIQUARIES, AND ANTIQUE. The term antique is applied to the productions of the arts from the age of Alexander to the time of the irruption of the Goths into Italy, in A.D. 400. A college of antiquaries is said to have existed in Ireland 700 years B.C.; but this has very little pretensions to credit. A society was founded by archbishop Parker, Camden, Stowe, and others, in 1572.-Spelman. Application was made in 1589 to Elizabeth for a charter, but her death ensued, and her successor, James I., was far from favouring the design. In 1717 this society was revived, and in 1751 it received its charter of incorporation from George II. It began to publish its discoveries, &c., under the title of Archæologia, in 1770. The Society of Antiquaries of Edinburgh was founded in 1780. ANTI-TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been the first who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the second century. This doctrine spread widely after the Reformation, when it was adopted by Lælius and Faustus Socinus.-Bayle. See Arians, Socinians, and Unitarians. ANTOIGN, BATTLE OF, between the central army of the French and the allies, in which 4,500 Austrians and Prussians were killed, 3,500 taken prisoners, and 600 emigrants shut up in Longwy; 900 French were killed in the action; thirty pieces of batteringcannon and howitzers, with all the baggage of the combined army, were captured, August 13, 1792. ANTWERP. First mentioned in history in A.D. 517. Its fine exchange built in 1531. Taken after a long and memorable siege by the prince of Parma, in 1585. It was then the chief mart of Flemish commerce, but the civil war caused by the tyranny of Philip II. drove the trade to Amsterdam. The remarkable crucifix of bronze, thirty-three feet high, in the principal street, was formed from the demolished statue of the cruel duke of Alva, which he had himself set up in the citadel. Antwerp was the seat of the civil war between the Belgians and the house of Orange, 1830-31. In the late revolution, the Belgian troops having entered Antwerp, were opposed by the Dutch garrison, which, after a dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel, cannonaded the town with red-hot balls and shells, doing immense mischief, Oct. 27, 1830. General Chassé surrendered the citadel to the French, after a destructive bombardment, Nov. 24, 1832.-See Belgium. APOCALYPSE, the Revelation of St. John, written in the isle of Patmos, about A.D. 95.-Irenæus. Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic, and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries many churches disowned it, and in the fourth century it was excluded from the sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held 1545, et seq. Rejected by Luther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority questioned in all ages from the time of Justin Martyr, who wrote his first Apology for the Christians in A.D. 139. APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, "These books are neyther found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde."-Bible, 1539. The history of the Apocrypha ends 135 B.C. The books were not in the Jewish canon, but they were received as canonical by the Roman Catholic Church, and so adjudged by the council of Trent, held in 1545, et seq.—Ashe. APOLLINARIANS, the followers of Apollinarius, bishop of Laodicea, who taught that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him; that his flesh was pre-existent to his appearance upon earth, and that it was sent down from heaven, and conveyed through the Virgin, as through a channel; that there were two sons, one born of God, the other of the Virgin, &c. Apollinarius was deposed for his opinions in A.D. 378. APOLLO FRIGATE, one of the finest of the British navy, with about forty sail of the outward-bound West India fleet, of which she was the convoy, lost in a heavy gale on the coast of Portugal, three leagues north of Cape Mondego, and with her perished sixty-one of her crew, including captain Dixon, the commander, besides an immense amount of life and property in the merchant vessels, April 2, 1804. APOLLO, TEMPLES OF. Apollo, the god of all the fine arts, of medicine, music, poetry, and eloquence, had temples and statues erected to him in almost every country, particularly Egypt, Greece, and Italy. His most splendid temple was at Delphi, built 1263 B.C.-See Delphi. His temple at Daphne, built 434 B.C., during a period in which pestilence raged, was burnt in A.D. 362, and the Christians accused of the crime.-Lenglet. APOLLYON, the same in Greek as Abaddon is in Hebrew, both signifying "the destroyer." St. John, Rev. ix. 11, says, " And they had a king over them, which is the angel of the bottomless pit, whose name in the Hebrew tongue is Abaddon, but in the Greek tongue hath his name APOLLYON." A.D. 95. APOSTASY. The forsaking of the Christian faith was anciently punishable in England by burning, and tearing to pieces by horses. A law was enacted against it, 9 Will. III. 1697. In Catholic countries for a succession of ages apostasy from the Christian faith was punished by torture and death. See Inquisition. APOSTLES' CREED. The summary of belief of the Christian faith, called the Apostles' Creed, is generally believed to have been composed a great while after their time.— Pardon. The repeating of this creed in public worship was ordained in the Greek church at Antioch, and was instituted in the Roman church in the eleventh century; whence it passed to the church of England at the period of the Reformation, in 1534. APOSTOLICI. The first sect of Apostolici arose in the third century; the second sect was founded by Sagarelli, who was burned alive at Parma, A.D. 300. They wandered about, clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled hair, and bare heads, accompanied by women whom they called their spiritual sisters, preaching against the growing corruption of the church of Rome, and predicting its downfall. APOTHECARY, THE KING'S. The first mention of one attending the king's person in England, was on Edward III., 1344; when he settled a pension of three pence per diem for life on Coursus de Gangeland, for taking care of him during his illness in Scotland.-Rymer's Fœdera. Apothecaries were exempted from serving on juries or other civil offices, 10 Anne, 1712. The Apothecaries' company was incorporated in London, 1617. The Botanical garden at Chelsea was left by sir Hans Sloane to the company of Apothecaries, Jan. 1753, on condition of their introducing every year fifty new plants, until their number should amount to 2,000. The Dublin guild was incorporated, 1745. APOTHEOSIS. A ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, by which they raised their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The nations of the East were the first. who paid divine honours to their great men, and the Romans followed their example, and not only deified the most prudent and humane of their emperors, but also the most cruel and profligate.-Herodian. This honour of deifying the deceased emperor was begun at Rome by Augustus, in favour of Julius Cæsar, B.C. 13.-Tillemont. APPEAL OF MURDER. By the late law of England, a man in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt or innocence. In 1817, a young maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have been violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, in an appeal, claimed his right by his wager of battle, which the court allowed; but the appellant (the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and the criminal escaped, April 16, 1818. This law was immediately afterwards struck from off the statute book, 59 Geo. III., 1819. APPEALS. In the time of Alfred, appeals lay from courts of justice to the king in council; but being soon overwhelmed with appeals from all parts of England, he framed the body of laws which long served as the basis of English jurisprudence. Hume. For ages previously to 1533, appeals to the pope were frequent upon ecclesiastical, judicial, and even private matters, but they were thereafter forbidden. Appeals from English tribunals to the pope were first introduced 19 Stephen, 1154. Abolished by act 24 Henry VIII.-Viner's Statutes. Appeals in cases of murder, treason, felony, &c. were abolished, June 1819. See preceding article. Courts of appeal at the Exchequer Chamber, in error from the judgments of the King's Bench, Common Pleas, and Exchequer, were regulated by statutes 11 Geo. IV. and 1 Will. IV., 1830 and 1831. See Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. APPRAISERS. The rating and valuation of goods for another was an early business in England; and so early as 11 Edward I., it was a law, that if they valued the goods of parties too high, the appraiser should take them at the price appraised. 1282. APPRENTICES. Those of London, obliged to wear blue cloaks in summer, and blue gowns in winter, in the reign of queen Elizabeth, 1558. Ten pounds then a great apprentice fee. From twenty to one hundred pounds were given in the reign of James I.-Stowe's Survey. The Apprentice tax enacted, 43 Geo. III., 1802. APPROPRIATIONS, IN THE CHURCH, were introduced in the time of William I.; the parochial clergy being then commonly Saxons, and the bishops and temporal clergy Normans. These made no scruple to impoverish the inferior clergy to enrich monasteries, which were generally possessed by the Conqueror's friends. Where the |