was a chance of success, I never supplicated peace; but my people are gone, and I now ask it for my nation and myself." Peace was soon afterwards concluded, but of course upon terms which granted little to the red man.

During the session of 1813, Congress passed laws imposing a direct tax of three millions of dollars, authorising the collection of various internal duties, providing for a loan of seven and a half millions of dollars, and prohibiting the merchant-vessels of the United States from sailing under British licences. The last-named statute was intended as a counteraction to that measure of the British Government by which, with a view chiefly to encourage the friendly feeling of the New Englanders, certain ships, by adopting these licences, were enabled to trade with the West Indies. Congress also appointed a committee to report upon the spirit and manner in which the war had been conducted by the enemy; and the upshot of the inquiry was to charge the naval and military authorities of

Great Britain with many shameful departures from the rules of warfare observed by civilised nations. It is certain, however, that these matters were not all on one side. Congress itself had passed an Act offering a reward of half their value for the destruction of British ships by means other than those of the armed vessels of the United States. The object was to encourage the use of torpedos, and several of those terrible machines were employed against Commodore Hardy's squadron on the coast of New England. Hardy protested against such attacks as unmanly, but they were held to be justified by the irregular proceedings of the British.

At the close of 1813, the Americans were in a more favourable position than they had occupied a year before. They had had some important triumphs at sea; they had not always been vanquished on land; and the nation was fully determined to spare no exertion in the further prosecution of hostilities.

WAR cannot be waged with a great Power except at a vast expense. The United States now found that they had entered on a struggle which would try their resources to the utmost. The old difficulty with respect to funds, which had led to so many questionable expedients in the days of the Revolution, arose once more, and the popular impatience of taxation was again a source of perplexity to financiers and politicians. Commerce being almost extinguished, it was found necessary to derive some amount of revenue from articles of consumption, such as spirits, sugar, and salt; but these duties were irksome to the American people, and it was considered advisable, as in the time of the old Continental Congress, to depend much on loans and on large issues of paper. In the winter of 1813-14, the President was authorised to

borrow twenty-five millions of dollars, and to issue Treasury notes to the amount of five millions. The credit of the Government was so bad that these Treasury notes fell seventeen per cent. below par; but, as at the earlier date, they helped with other resources to give the Administration power to engage in vast expenses which could not have been more immediately defrayed. To add to the numbers of the army, and to secure a better class of soldiers, the enormous bounty of a hundred and twenty-four dollars was offered for each recruit. The pay, rations, and clothing of the troops were also settled on a liberal scale, and provision was made for the increase and better organisation of the navy, and for the defence of the sea-board. An embargo instituted with a view to preventing the trade under British licences was repealed in

1814.1

April, 1814, and the further attacks of the enemy were awaited with some composure.

As the year progressed, however, it became evident that the war would assume a much more serious character. The abdication of the Emperor Napoleon, in April, and his banishment to Elba, with the empty sovereignty of that small realm, had put an end to the long war with revolutionary France; and England, being now at peace on the Continent of Europe, was free to direct her whole strength against the United States. Louis XVIII. had been established on the throne of his ancestors; the great disturber of the old systems and dynasties was apparently securely disposed of in a Mediterranean island; and the Government of Lords Liverpool and Castlereagh, delivered from the fear of change near home, could concentrate the immense resources of the Empire on the distant fields of America. Before the occurrence of these great events, the war in that country had fallen into a somewhat languid condition. Towards the close of March, General Wilkinson entered Canada, and attacked a number of English troops stationed in a large stone mill on the river La Colle, but was soon repulsed with heavy loss, and, having for some time sunk much in popular esteem, was shortly afterwards removed from the chief command, to which General Izard succeeded. A court-martial subsequently inquired into the conduct of Wilkinson, when he was acquitted of blame, but did not recover his former position. The Republic at this period was not very fortunate in its landcommanders.

Some operations for obtaining predominance on Lake Ontario took place in the spring of 1814. On the 5th of May, Sir James Yeo, who was in command of a small English squadron, appeared before Oswego, with three thousand troops and marines. The fort on the east side of the river was in a very dilapidated state, and defended by no more than three hundred men, under Colonel Mitchell, and a flotilla, under Captain Woolsey. A large quantity of naval and military stores had been deposited at Oswego Falls, some miles off, and one object of Yeo's expedition was to capture these, or, failing that, to destroy them. But although, after a resistance of nearly two days, the fort yielded to a combined attack by land and water, the British did not care to penetrate farther into the country, and accordingly withdrew on the morning of the 7th, with a loss of two hundred and thirty-five men in killed and wounded. The Americans had lost only sixty-nine; but this is to be accounted for by the fact that they had fought behind walls. Early in July, an American force under General Brown

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crossed the Niagara River, and invested Fort Erie, which surrendered without opposition. The garrison retired to the entrenched camp of General Riall, situated at Chippewa, about two miles above the Falls of Niagara, on the Canada side of the river; and here the Americans determined on attacking their adversaries a second time. On the 4th of July, they advanced against the position, and next day a sanguinary battle was fought in the open fields, ending in the defeat of the British, who fell back to Fort George, and subsequently to the heights of Burlington. The English army in America had by this time been reinforced by veteran regiments, accustomed to frequent triumphs in the Spanish Peninsula and on other European fields, where they had successfully encountered the best troops of France. The Americans therefore found themselves opposed by large and formidable hosts - by men who had fought and conquered under the lead of Wellington, Hill, Anglesey, and the other heroes of that prolonged struggle which for more than twenty years had tasked the resources of Great Britain. Nothing could be said against the material force now employed in the United States; it seems, indeed, to have been in every way equal to what was required of it; but the commanders were not men of first-rate ability. With Generals of more decided genius, the issue of the war might in some respects have been different.

Soon after arriving at Burlington Heights, General Riall was joined by Lieutenant-General Drummond, with a large number of additional troops. The Americans also expected reinforcements, but these were blockaded by a British fleet off Sackett's Harbour, and could not reach their comrades. They were therefore compelled to do the best they could with a force inferior to the enemy; but the events of July 25th showed that they had not altogether miscalculated their strength. The attack was commenced by the British under General Drummond, and the battle raged for some hours with unabated violence. During the pauses of the fight, the roar of the great cataract near at hand was heard with solemn monotone, which, when the fire of the opposing armies was resumed, mingled with the crash of artillery and the rattle of small-arms, and lost its separate existence in the mightier noise of conflict. Night had fallen before the action reached its close, and a cloudy sky gave intermitting glimpses of moonlight, by which the antagonists sought out each other's positions, and wrestled long and bloodily for the advantage. For a considerable time, the Americans were much annoyed by a British battery planted on a com

manding eminence. "Can you capture those guns?" asked General Ripley of Colonel Miller. "I will try, sir," replied that officer; and the modest words have since become the motto of his regiment. The attempt was gallantly made. Again and again, Miller led his men to the assault, sometimes momentarily seizing the position, and then losing it. Cannon were brought up by the Americans to support the attack, and gun charged gun with obstinate determination. The confusion was so great that the guns were at one time interchanged; but no décided result attended the heroic effort. The close of the day has been variously described. American historians allege that the victory was with them; but it seems more probable that the balance of advantages lay with the English. Immediately after the battle, the Americans retreated to Fort Erie, where they shut themselves up, and were besieged by the enemy. The losses on both sides were serious. General Rial was severely wounded and taken prisoner; and the American Generals Brown and Scott were compelled by their injuries to quit the field.

On the 4th of August, Drummond, who had also been wounded, appeared before Fort Erie, and commenced preparations for a siege. The English General was in command of five thousand troops; his works were speedily advanced to within four hundred yards of the American lines; and, on the night between the 14th and 15th of August, the besiegers made an assault upon the fort, which was gallantly repulsed. On the 2nd of September, General Brown, who had by that time recovered from his wounds, threw himself into the fort, and took command of the garrison, which, being strengthened by five thousand men from Plattsburg, felt equal to offensive operations. The 17th of September was signalised by a sortie from the besieged, who endeavoured to cut off the British advanced posts from the main body. The enemy's entrenchments were for a time seized by the Americans, and the works destroyed; but, on General Drummond hurrying up reinforcements, the assailants were obliged to retreat. The besiegers, however, were now so much discouraged that, on the night of the 21st, after having remained on the ground forty-nine days, they retired to their entrenchments behind the Chippewa. General Izard arrived on the 9th of October, and took the command; but, considering it inexpedient to attempt any further operations in that quarter, he demolished the works at Fort Erie, and removed his troops to Buffalo. Thus the American attempt on Canada was once more abandoned.

Plattsburg being now left almost defenceless, the

British determined to attack it by land, and at the same time to attempt the destruction of the American flotilla on Lake Champlain. At the head of 14,000 men, most of whom were veterans of the European wars, Sir George Prevost entered the United States on the 3rd of September. Three days later, he arrived at Plattsburg, which is situated near the lake, on the northern bank of the river Saranac. The garrison of the town consisted mainly of the militia of New York and Vermont, hastily drawn together by General Macomb on the first alarm of invasion. Retiring to the south side of the Saranac, they prepared to dispute the passage of the stream. With the planks of the bridges, which they had torn up, they formed slight breastworks, and, thus aided, were able to defeat all endeavours to follow them. For some days the invaders were employed in erecting batteries, and early on the morning of the 11th the British squadron, commanded by Commodore Downie, appeared off the harbour of Plattsburg, where that of the United States, under Commodore Macdonough, lay at anchor. The former carried ninety-five guns, with a complement of upwards of a thousand men; the latter had eighty-six guns, and eight hundred and twenty men. A naval battle between these forces commenced at nine o'clock; and at the same time the British army began a heavy cannonade upon the American lines, and attempted at different places to cross the Saranac. The opposi tion to those attempts was so determined, and the loss of life so serious, that the English forces were unable to gain the other side, except at one point, where the ford was weakly guarded by militia. Here the assailants managed to get into the woods, but were severely handled, and compelled, after awhile, to recross the river. At six o'clock in the evening, all the British batteries were silenced, and long before that time a great naval success had been obtained upon the lake. After an engagement of two hours and twenty minutes, the English squadron was completely defeated; nearly all the ships composing it were sunk or taken; Commodore Downie was killed, and his ship was compelled to strike her colours, amidst the triumphant cheers of the Americans. So hard had been the fighting on both sides, that at the close of the action not a mast was standing uninjured in either squadron. Seeing the complete defeat of their vessels, the British land-commanders determined to withdraw, and during the ensuing night the whole army moved off with precipitation, leaving behind them their sick and wounded, most of their camp-equipage, and their intrenching tools and provisions. Considering the excellent material

of which the army was composed, and that these seasoned troops were beaten by a force consisting for the most part of militia, it is not easy to resist the conclusion that the English must have been feebly commanded. Ever since the commencement of the war, Sir George Prevost had exhibited a want of vigour and capacity, and this last failure was considered too serious to be passed over, though it was the opinion of Wellington that he was right in retiring after the discomfiture of the fleet. He was dismissed by his Government, and would have been tried by court-martial had he not died soon afterwards.

During the year 1814, great indignation was excited in America by the English seducing from their masters' plantations a large number of slaves, whom they armed and placed among their ranks; on account of which they had afterwards to pay, on the arbitration of the Emperor of Russia, £250,000 in compensation to the slave-owners. Scattered actions with individual frigates continued to occur on the ocean, with varying success. But the principal seat of war was now transferred to the Southern and Middle States. A squadron under Sir Alexander Cochrane, having on board an army under General Ross, sailed up the Chesapeake in the month of August. An American flotilla, commanded by Commodore Barney, had taken shelter in the Patuxent, and thither Cochrane's fleet sailed, apparently in search of the enemy. The English ships, however, were too large to proceed any great way up the river, and moreover Ross had plans of a very different nature, to which the temporary pursuit of Barney served as a convenient blind. The army, consisting of nearly five thousand men, was disembarked at St. Benedict's, that they might march upon the Federal capital, and compel its surrender. Washington was defended by a force which, including militia, numbered rather more than seven thousand troops. No attempt was made to oppose the British advance, for Armstrong, the American Secretary for War, could not persuade himself that the attack was seriously intended, and was in doubt as to the real destination of the English forces. The actual command was in the hands of General Winder, who showed great indecision of purpose, but at length resolved to make a stand against the invaders. With this view he selected a strong position at Bladensburg, covered by a branch of the Potomac. In the meanwhile, the English were pushing forward without the slightest opposition, and, by the time they had reached Marlborough, Commodore Barney thought it prudent to destroy his flotilla, to prevent its falling into the enemy's hands. The English commander cared

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little about the flotilla. His object was Washington, and thither he pursued his march, arriving in its neighbourhood on the 24th of August.

It was necessary in the first instance to carry the position at Bladensburg. The Americans numbered many more than the British; but the former were raw militia-the latter, experienced and highly-disciplined troops. The approach to the town was over a bridge, which was defended by artillery taken from Barney's flotilla and served by Barney's sailors. The resistance at this point was prolonged and courageous. For a time, the British were checked, and even compelled to give way; but they speedily rallied, out-flanked the defenders of the bridge, and finally overpowered them. The commander of the gallant band, being wounded, was captured, and paroled for his courage by General Ross. The militia acted as militia generally do. They abandoned their positions with the utmost haste, and Bladensburg was presently in the hands of General Ross. The retreating forces were ordered to assemble on the heights near the capital, and at this spot were joined by a body of Virginian militia. But General Winder had no reliance on his army. He considered it quite incapable of opposing so well-trained an enemy, and accordingly withdrew to Georgetown. Washington was at the same time abandoned by the President, the heads of departments, and most of the citizens, and was shortly afterwards entered by the victors. It was at eight o'clock in the evening when General Ross, with an advanced guard of eight hundred men, penetrated into the Federal capital. Having arrived at the seat of Government, he offered terms of capitulation, and promised that, on receiving a sum of money nearly equal to the value of the public and private property which the place contained, the city should be ransomed, and the British troops drawn off. There was no civil or military authority on the spot, however, competent to enter into any such arrangement. Ross found himself in a difficult position, and had to consider what next he should do. It is said that his flag of truce was fired on, and, probably in a moment of exasperation, he determined on an act for which there can be no defence. Washington was doomed to the flames, and, in the immense conflagration which was kindled, the President's house, the offices of the several departments, a considerable number of private dwellings, the libraries and public archives, the works of art contained in the public buildings, the navy-yard and its contents, a frigate on the stocks, and several smaller vessels, were involved in one common doom. The British remained close to the burning city (the light of which was seen at