dock, hake, and bream, with some lobsters, crabs, and crawfish-a goodly list it will be seen.* The three crustaceans last mentioned are, when caught in any numbers, packed alive in damp seaweed in barrels and dispatched in carts to Menheniot station, and thence by rail to London. The cod, whiting, ling, and the other fish in the list, save the pilchards and mackerel, are chiefly caught by hook and line, and in most years in considerable quantities. The most important fish, however, and those whose pursuit is most actively prosecuted, are the pilchards and mackerel. The latter fish usually arrive off the coast in vast shoals in June, a month or so earlier than the shoals of pilchards. At the time of our visit, early in June, the sea off Polperro was literally alive with mackerel, and such large quantities were being caught that the majority of the boats ran for Plymouth and Fowey to dispose of their catch for the London or some other market, two or three boats being more than sufficient to meet the demands of the jowters at Polperro. Such was the abundance of these fish that at this time they were being sold by the jowters in the neighbouring town of Lostwithiel sixteen for a shilling. The mackerel come from the western ocean into the English Channel, as in winter they are seen in vast shoals as far south as Mogador. From inquiries made, there can be no doubt that these fish spawn twice a year, and on the surface of the open sea in the warm water south of the Bay of Biscay. This is a very interesting fact in natural history, deserving of being placed on record. Thirty years since both pilchard and mackerel were chiefly caught in seines, but now drift-net fishing, or "driving," as it is technically called, is the mode adopted. At the present day there is but one small seine remaining in Polperro, and this is only occasionally used when the mackerel shoal in unusually large numbers along shore. In 1877 Polperro owned twenty-two boats engaged in the drift-net fishery, carrying one hundred and seventy-six nets, each from twenty to forty fathoms in length, and about seven in depth. So profitable has this method of fishing proved that there are now about forty boats, and the nets have proportionately increased in number. As soon as the pilchards are seen off the coast, generally about the 10th of July, Polperro presents a scene of the most active industry, fitting out the drift-boats for this fishery, for upon its success depends in a great measure the well-being of nearly all the inhabitants of the place. The season for pilchards lasts from the time mentioned till the end of the year, and occasionally some are taken as late as March. The fishing is done during the night, the catch being carried into port every morning. In the daytime the pilchards go in closely-packed shoals, which shortly after sunset scatter abroad in "open order," and it is only when the fish are so scat * The writer is indebted for much information respecting the fisheries of Polperro and other places on the south coast of Cornwall to Mr. Wm. Laughrin, A.L.S., an authority upon all matters connected with the Cornish fisheries, to whom was entrusted the arrangement of the Cornish exhibits in the Fishery Exhibition. tered and on the move that the drift-net boats are successful. Therefore as soon as the sun goes down the nets are "shot" or paid out, being "hauled" or taken up after having been down about two hours. The nets are again shot about dawn, for pilchards are caught in the greatest numbers just after the breaking-up of the shoals at night and as the fish reassemble in the morning. In a favourable season a single boat will catch in a night from one to fifteen thousand pilchards. Hazy weather, with the water not too smooth, is most favourable for the drift-boats, while clear moonlight nights are most unfavourable, the fish being very shy at such times. A drift-boat carries from eight to twenty nets. These are paid out over the bows of the boat while she lies head to wind, drifting slowly to leeward, net after net being attached the one to the other until all are in the water, and the boat rides with them extended from her bows in a straight line. Frequently a "well-found" boat will be seen riding with as great a length of nets as from one quarter to half a mile. From statistical information it can be proved the fishing boats from the eastern coasts of England that fish the Cornish waters, conjointly with the boats belonging to the county, will spread nets enough to reach a distance of eight hundred miles from the Lizard to Lisbon! As far back as 1877 the Cornish boats alone carried nearly three hundred and fifty miles of nets! A drift-boat is usually manned by a crew of from three to five men, according to the number of nets with which she is "found," and a boy. Half the catch belongs to the owner or owners of the boat and nets, the other half is divided among the crew-share and share alike, save the boy, who, when mackerel fishing, gets from one-quarter to half a man's share, according to his age and abilities. When pilchard fishing he is remunerated by what he can save of the fish that drop from the meshes of the net during the haul. These he catches, as they slip out, in his 'kieve net"-a net somewhat like an angler's landing-net. He also may employ his time between the hauls by fishing with a line for hake and other fish, all he catches being his own property. Formerly the major part of the pilchard catch were dispatched to Italy, salted or "bulked," where they found a ready market; but nearly the whole of the Cornish catch of pilchards are now disposed of for home consumption, large quantities being dispatched to London fresh. In 1875 a company was formed for preserving pilchards in oil, à la sardine, and it now has factories at Mevagissey and Newlyn, on the south coasts of Cornwall. This brief account of the Cornish pilchard fishery would be imperfect were I not to mention that modern ichthyologists are agreed that the sardine is a young pilchard. In the "Leisure Hour" for February, 1875, is an interesting letter upon the subject from the late Dr. A. Günther, then of the British Museum, to the late Mr. Frank Buckland. Dr. Günther could not find any characters by which these two fishes could be specifically separated, and states his belief that the Clupea pilchardus and Clupea sardina are identical. As S public attention has been recently attracted to the Himalayas and to the heights which have been attained in them and in the allied ranges, we propose to present to our readers in the following article a few facts concerning the peaks and passes of those mighty mountains, and the explorations which have been performed amongst them. Before proceeding, it may as well be said that the precise extent of country to which the term Himalayas should be applied remains still an open question, for no writer of sufficient authority has hitherto dealt with the whole subject in such a manner as to produce unanimity in the views of geographers. But our readers will not be far wrong if they think of the Himalayas as bounded on the south by the Punjab and the valley of the Ganges, on the west by the Indus, on the east by the Brahmaputra, and on the north by the upper course of the Indus and the great interior valley of Tibet proper. To the north of the region just indicated there are mountain ranges of vast extent, known to contain peaks almost equal in altitude to the highest of the Himalayas. Scarcely anything is known of Colonel Godwin Austen alluded to this matter at Southport in his address to the Geographical Section of the British Association; and, as an old member of the Survey staff, and as a traveller of distinction, his remarks, so far as they extend, may be considered authoritative. the heights of the mountains in the interior of Tibet, but, proceeding westwards, there are the Thian Shan and Kuen Lun, the Karakoram and the Hindoo Koosh, respecting which materials are being continually amassed, though few persons are yet agreed as the boundaries of these important groups, or even as to the spelling of their names. At the beginning of the present century the great height of the Himalayan peaks was quite unknown, and their real altitude has only been determined comparatively recently. Humboldt, in his "Aspects of Nature," says: "When I returned to Europe in 1804, not a single Asiatic snowy summit, either in the Himalaya, the Hindoo Koosh, or the Caucasus, had been measured with any exactness. . . . It was not until the beginning of the year 1820 that it began to be reported in Europe, that not only were there in the Himalaya summits much higher than those of the Cordilleras (of the Andes), but also that Webb had seen in the Pass of Niti, and Moorcroft in the Tibetan pleateau, fine pastures and flourishing fields of corn at altitudes far exceeding the height of Mont Blanc. These accounts were received in England with much incredulity. . . . Until the measurement of the Dhawalagiri, etc., Chimborazo was still everywhere regarded as the highest summit on the surface of the earth." For a time Dhawalagiri* remained the highest of known mountains, but then it was deposed, for *There is no universally recognised way of spelling this name. The Indian authorities give numerous versions. Kinchinjinga was discovered to be loftier; and this in its turn has been found to be surpassed by others. It was during the progress of the part of the Indian survey which is called the Northeastern Himalaya Series (in the year 1845-50) that the peak was measured, which is now the highest of known mountains. Termed at first "No. 15," it is now generally called Mount Everest, a name which was bestowed upon it by Sir Andrew Waugh, the second superintendent of the Great Trigonometrical Survey, in honour of his old chief the first superintendent, Sir George Everest. Many writers in newspapers and elsewhere speak of Mount Everest as if it were in British India, and could be easily reached. After any notable ascent has been executed, such observations are continually made, and betray a considerable amount of ignorance or misapprehension. Mount Everest is situated on the northern frontier of Nepal, and the angles by which its position has been fixed and its height determined have been taken at distances from the mountains of a hundred miles and upwards. When the North-eastern Himalaya Series was about to be commenced it was intended to have carried the chain of observing stations along the mountains themselves, "but the Nepalese Government refused to allow the operations to enter their territory." The consequence was that the survey had to be carried on through the Terai, a belt of jungle country which fringes the southern borders of Nepal; and not only did the health of the surveyors suffer, but the survey suffered also, for it is impossible to take angles at such distance without enormous trouble and at the risk of considerable inaccuracies creeping into the work. At the distance of a hundred miles the summit even of Mount Everest, 29,002 feet high, appears only a few degrees above the horizon. So far as a mountain' 'can be observed at the distance of a hundred or more miles, Mount Everest has been seen all round its eastern, western, and southern sides, but we believe it is correct to say that no European has ever seen, or, anyhow, has ever given a report upon its northern sides, so that it is not quite certain whether the mountain is wholly in Nepal, or is divided between that country and Tibet. The Nepalese persistently and consistently refuse to let foreigners enter their country. It is equally impossible to approach Mount Everest from the side of the Tibetans (who are ever more exclusive than the Nepalese), so that the present chances of any one getting to the base of the mountain, to say nothing about the difficulties of getting up it, are about as small as the chances of going to the moon in a balloon.§ etc. * Sometimes written Kanchinjinga, Kinchinjunga, Kanchan-junga, ↑ A Memoir on the Indian Surveys, p. 90. As many as forty of the native assistants died of jungle fever in one season. "Of the five officers who had charge of the series at different times, two retired, and two fell victims to the climate." § The Nepalese are supposed to be on friendly terms with our country, and are allowed freedom of access to British India, and supply us with excellent soldiers. In return for the advantage they derive from us they permit an English Political Resident at their capital, but keep him in a sort of honourable captivity, and only permit him a limited amount of liberty. When Dr. Hooker was travelling in Sikkim in 1847-50, he was allowed to cross the contiguous Nepalese frontier. This was a very exceptional privilege, and the traveller went but a very short distance into the country. Kinchinjinga, it has been already stated, was once considered the highest mountain on the globe. It ranks only third highest now, and its elevation is stated by the Indian surveyors to be 28,156 feet. This mountain is much talked about, for the reason that it is seen by a large number of persons who visit the hill station of Darjeeling, from which place it forms a prominent and noble object. Being principally in Sikkim, there are no political obstacles to prevent travellers from reaching it, and being only about forty-eight miles in a direct line from the hill station, which is now connected by railway with Calcutta, it would seem a very simple matter to get to it. Yet it is by no means easy, for the short intervening distance is country difficult to traverse, and will give more trouble to get over than the thousands of miles which separate Darjeeling from London. It is, no doubt, this proximity to a very agreeable and easily-reached place which has tempted several travellers to India in late years with the view of ascending Kinchinjinga. Áll have, however, entirely failed hitherto, and some who have started have not even reached its base. Mount Everest lies about sixty-five miles to the west of Kinchinjinga, and Dhawalagiri, which is probably the fourth in rank of the Himalayan and allied peaks, is 220 miles farther on in the same direction. This mountain was formerly stated to be over 28,000 feet high, but is now abased to 26,826. It is, like Mount Everest, either entirely in Nepal or divided between Nepal and Tibet, and our remarks upon the difficulty of reaching the higher mountain apply equally to it. Two hundred miles more to the w.N.w. we come to another prominent and famous mountain-Nanda Debi, 25,614 feet high, and sixty miles or so to its northwest to Ibi Gamin (25,373), a peak which enjoys another name, spelt in various manners. same neighbourhood, not far from the source of the Ganges, there are the two well-known mountains, Kidernath and Badrinath, 22,790 and 23,210 feet respectively. These four mountains lie within British territory, and can be reached with tolerable facility from the hill station Mussoorie. There are also in the same neighbourhood various other peaks of considerable altitude, so this forms an attractive district for a mountain explorer. It is needless to remark that none of these summits have as yet been reached. In the Continuing to the N.W., we come, in 440 miles more, to Nanga Parbat (26,629), which is perhaps the fifth in order. This mountain is placed on the north-western frontiers of the Maharajah of Cashmere's territory, and is well known to travellers in that country, as is it seen far and wide, and is a conspicuous feature from the town of Srinagar. The wild country of Chilas occupies its northern side, and the Indus is known to flow round its base in that direction; but no European has ever traversed this part, owing to the invincible hostility of the natives. Yet the slopes and precipices of the northern side of Nanga Parbat have been seen from no great distance away, and are described as being absolutely unique in their height and magnificence; and it cannot be doubted that in mere height this view far exceeds any other which is known. The mountain, as we have said, is 26,629 feet high. The Indus, at this part, is only about 3,000 feet above the sea; and so the eye can take in at a glance nearly 24,000 of stupendous snow-crowned cliffs, which is more than double the amount which can be seen in any close view in the Alps, and far more than can be witnessed in any other place. At a distance of 150 miles to the E.N.E. of Nanga Parbat a mountain is situated which closely approaches the height of Mount Everest, and is second only to it. For some reason best known to the Indian surveyors this has never received a name, although its height was determined more than twenty years ago, and is said to be 28,278 feet. It therefore exceeds Kinchinjinga by more than a hundred feet, and would no doubt have as many admirers as the Sikkim peak, if it were placed in as convenient a position. But it occupies almost the very extreme northern point of British India, and is situated far back from routes ordinarily traversed, amidst enormous glaciers, and has scarcely been seen by any Europeans except those employed on the survey. Near it there are two other important mountains-Masherbrum and Gusherbrum (25,676 and 26,400 feet)—and very numerous others ranging from 22,000 to 25,000 feet. The general elevation of the northern provinces of the Maharajah of Cashmere's territory is probably greater than that of any other part of India;* but the mountains do not belong to the Himalayas proper, and are a part of what we term the " allied ranges." The passes in this tract are, as might be supposed, also much above the average height, and amongst them there is one-the Chang Lang Burma pass--which is considered to be the highest route that is anywhere frequented by man and beast, and it well may be so, for it rises to the prodigious height of 19,300 feet, or about the elevation of Snowdon piled on the top of Mont Blanc. This pass is described by Colonel Montgomerie as having " easy slopes." In the same neighbourhood, or not far away, there are at least seven more passes, commonly frequented, of 18,000 feet and upwards, namely, the Gardhar pass, Changla, and Khardung (each about 18,000); the Parang pass, Marsemik-la, and Karakoram (18,300 -18,600); and the Changlung (18,900). There are other almost equally lofty passes in the Himalayas, as, for example, the Donkia pass (18,500), close by Kinchinjinga, but the generality are not so elevated, though there are abundance ranging from 16,000 to 17,000 feet high. As there are passes surpassing 19,000 feet which are practicable for laden animals, and numerous others of only slightly inferior elevation, it is obvious that the Himalayas and adjacent mountains The general elevation of Tibet proper is also exceedingly high. The capital, Lassa, is believed to be about 10,000 feet above the sea, and there are peaks which are known to exceed 25,000 feet. + We refer above to passes commonly frequented, the equivalent of such passes as the St. Bernard, in Europe. There are others even loftier. Schlagintweit says: "As a remarkable pass may be mentioned the Ibi Gamin pass (20,459 feet high), the highest we ever had occasion to cross. Though known to the natives, some of whoin ventured to cross it thirty-six years ago, the pass was found to be so difficult of access that its uselessness as a commercial route at once became apparent." in many parts present no mountaineering difficulties up to a very great altitude. There is no doubt that an enterprising traveller accustomed to the management of animals might take them at least several thousand feet higher than the commonly frequented routes. It is surprising, therefore, considering the large number of young, active, and wealthy men who have been in India in one or another of the various services, that some have not got to heights much exceeding those which have been reached; and especially that the members of the survey have not made a point of scaling some of the giant peaks for the purposes of their work. In the "Memoir on the Indian Surveys" it is stated that during the work in Cashmere "marks were erected on peaks as high as 21,480 feet," and this appears to have been the greatest height reached by the surveyors in connection with their work. But a donkey or a yak might be ridden in some parts to as great a height as that, with as much facility, so far as the ground is concerned, as one might be taken across the St. Bernard.* Of other authenticated heights which have been reached may be mentioned an ascent by Captain Webb sixty years ago (19,500 feet); twenty years later Dr. Hooker got to about 20,000 feet in the neighbourhood of Kinchinjinga; and, later still, the Schlagintweits got as high as 22,200 feet on Ibi Gamin. This they stated was the highest point hitherto reached by any one in the world. These three ascents may be accepted without reservation, as the heights were determined by observation with instruments. Somewhat greater elevations have at different times been stated to have been reached by others, but they have all been, so far as we are aware, unverified by observation. *The rarity of the air at so great an elevation would, however, render the operation more troublesome. Darieties. Mr. Gladstone as a Woodcutter. Every one has heard (we quote from the "Hawarden Visitor's Handbook ") of Mr. Gladstone's prowess as a woodcutter, and to some it may even have been matter of surprise to see no scantiness of trees in the park at Hawarden. It is true that he attacks trees with the same vigour as he attacks abuses in the body politic, but he attacks them on the same principle-that they are blemishes and not ornaments. A wag is said to have scratched on the stump of a tree at Hawarden the following couplet : "No matter whether oak or birch, They all go like the Irish Church." No one more scrupulously respects a sound and shapely tree than Mr. Gladstone; and, if he is prone to condemn those that show signs of decay, he is always ready to listen to any plea that may be advanced on their behalf by other members of the family. In this, as in other matters, doubtful points will of course arise; but there car be no question that a policy of inert conservatism is an entire mistake. Besides the natural growth and decay of trees, a hundred other causes are ever at work to affect their structure and appearance; and the facts of the landscape, thus continually altering, afford ample occupation for the eye and hand of the woodman. It was late in life that Mr. Gladstone took to woodcutting. Tried first as an experiment, it answered so admirably the object of getting the most complete exercise in a short time that, though somewhat slackened of late, it has never been abandoned. His procedure is characteristic. No exercise is taken in the morning, save the daily walk to morning service, but between three and four in the afternoon he sallies forth, axe on shoulder, accompanied by one or more of his sons. The scene of action reached, there is no pottering; the work begins at once, and is carried on with unflagging energy. Blow follows blow, delivered with a skill which Homer* reminds us is of more value to the woodman than strength, together with a force and precision that soon tells its tale on the tree : "Illa usque minatur Et tremefacta comam concusso vertice nutat, "It still keeps nodding to its doom, Conington's Translation. The Yellowstone National Park. The district now known as the Yellowstone National Park is a mountainous region, containing some 3,300 square miles, situated in the north-west corner of the Territory of Wyoming. Through it runs the "divide," or water-parting of the Rocky Mountains, which separates the head waters of the Missouri basin that ultimately drain into the Atlantic, from those of other rivers flowing towards the Pacific Ocean. Before the year 1870 the Yellowstone district, which is now destined to be the chosen pleasureground of a great continent, and probably to attract visitors from all parts of the world, was known only by the mysterious and almost fabulous tales of a few trappers and adventurers. More than one well equipped expedition had endeavoured to find it and failed. At last the Government of the United States organised an expedition under General Washburn, which explored a great portion of the region, and in the following year it was visited and provisionally surveyed by Professor Hayden, the Director of the United States Geological Survey, who described it in great detail in his reports made to the Government. The people of the United States then became aware that in the district surrounding the head waters of the Yellowstone river they possessed a tract of country as rich in natural marvels, in varieties of scenery, in strange and exceptional manifestations of physical agencies as was to be found in any portion of the globe; and Congress forthwith passed an Act in 1872, whereby the whole district was "reserved and withdrawn from settlement, occupancy, or sale, and dedicated and set apart as a public park or pleasure-ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people." The park thus con. stituted was placed under the exclusive control of the Secretary of the Interior, who was empowered to make suitable regulations for the preservation from injury or spoliation of all timber, mineral deposits, natural curiosities or wonders within the park, and their retention in their natural condition; to grant leases for building purposes, for terms not exceeding ten years, with a view to the erection of buildings suitable for the accommodation of visitors; to apply the proceeds of such leases, and all other revenues derived from any source connected with the park, in the management of the park, and the construction of roads and bridle-paths therein; and, finally, to provide against the wanton destruction of the fish and game found within the park, and against their capture or destruction for the purpose of merchandise and profit. * Μήτι τοὶ δρυτόμος μέγ' ἀμέινων ἠὲ βίῃφι. -Iliad xxlii. 315. Such is the public history, so to speak, of the Yellowstone National Park, and the origin and explanation of its name. The dedication of a district nearly half as large as the State of Massachusetts to the benefit and enjoyment of the people, its preservation alike from the greed of private monopoly and adventure, and from the destructive vandalism of thoughtless or rapacious visitors, was undoubtedly a noble conception, eminently worthy of a people which moulds its institutions and forecasts its future on a scale commensurate with its magnificent opportunities. It is an immense upland district, no portion of which lies less than 6,000 feet above the sea. It contains snowy peaks, streams, and cascades, vast waterfalls, lakes, and mountain tarns, with volcanic phenomena of singular variety and strangeness (See "Leisure Hour," 1872.) This marvellous region is now rendered accessible by the North Pacific Railway. It should be noted that this is not the only national park the United States possess. The whole of the Yosemite Valley has been similarly nationalised. Whirlpools. The recent death of Captain Matthew Webb, in an attempt to swim the Whirlpool Rapids of the Niagara river, has directed attention to these phenomena-the more so as of late years comparatively little has been written about them. We gave in our last part (p. 601) some account of the scene of this disaster. "The river boils and leaps," wrote Professor Tyndale, describing the same spot, "in the most frantic manner; the most extraordinary effect being produced when two waves so coalesce that the united forces of both toss the crest of the compounded billow, shivered into liquid sphenales, high in air. In the middle of the river no man could live; but the tossing everywhere is terrific. Lower down the river suddenly bends, nearly at a right angle, and here is formed the whirlpool from which the lower rapids derive their name. The river strikes the bank opposite to it with tremendous force, and is thereby thrown into gyrating motion." In an earlier paper contributed to "Macmillan's Magazine" the same acute observer says: "Bodies and trees which have come over the Falls are stated to circulate here for days without finding the outlet. From various points of the cliffs above this is curiously hidden. The rush of the river into the whirpool is obvious enough, and though you imagine the outlet must be visible if one existed, you cannot find it. Turning, however, round the bend of the precipice to the north-east, the outlet comes into view. A kind of mystery attaches itself to gyrating water, due, perhaps, to the fact that we are to some extent ignorant of the direction of its force. It is said that at certain points of the whirlpool pine-trees are sucked down, to be ejected mysteriously elsewhere. The water is of the brightest emeraldgreen. The gorge through which it escapes is narrow, and the motion of the river swift though silent. The surface is steeply inclined, but it is perfectly unbroken. There are no lateral waves. No ripples with their breaking bubbles to raise a murinur, while the depth is here too great to allow the inequality of the bed to ruffle the surface. Nothing can be more beautiful than this sloping liquid mirror formed by the Niagara in sliding from the whirlpool." Some years ago a small steamer, called the Maid of the Mist, propelled by engines of one hundred horse-power, working at high pressure, and which plied between the whirlpool and the Falls, was driven through the former. When she entered the whirlpool "the pilot seized the helm, steered her to the right of the cauldron of the pool, thence direct through the neck of it, until, though with much drenching and battering by water, the steamer reached the quiet stream below." The effect of the terrible voyage on those who made it was great. The pilot, it is said, “ grew venerable in an hour." "He aged twenty years, and both his manners and appearance were changed.' The cause of whirlpools, which are circular eddies tending towards a depressed vortex in the centre, is the violent conflict of rapid tides or currents running in contrary directions, and which are frequently found along broken coasts. The best-known whirlpools in the world are the Charybdis and the Maelstrom. The former, as every schoolboy knows, is in the Strait of Messina, in Sicily. The famous Scylla rock rises on one side about two hundred feet high, and on the other the whirlpool or a of that chopping sea character. The space between Scylla and Charybdis has |