dor, into an independent state, to which was given the title of the Republic of Colombia. As the Isthmus of Panama or Tierra Firme at that time belonged to New Granada, it naturally formed one of the departments of this infant republic, and was itself divided into the two provinces of Panama and Veragua.

Concessions to popular sentiment now seemed to the home government to be a necessity, and accordingly a change in the administration was effected. The constitutional régime, granted in 1810, and finally adopted and promulgated in 1812 but abrogated by Fernando VII in 1814, was restored in 1820, and the people of the isthmus were for the first time allowed to exercise the right of suffrage. The ayuntamiento now established was regarded as being favorable to independence, and it is said that the changed aspect of affairs so painfully affected Hore, the sturdy champion of absolute monarchy, that it brought about his death, which occurred at this time. He was succeeded in the military command by Pedro Ruiz de Porras and in the civil governorship by Pedro Aguilar, of whom the former was friendly to constitutional government and the latter was lukewarm in defense of Spanish privileges. The cabildo was, therefore, free to demand, as it did demand, the full application of the various measures provided in the national constitution. Progress in this direction was, however, checked by the arrival of the viceroy, Samano, in Panama, with the avowed object of making the isthmus the center and seat of his government. In the carrying out of this determination he was opposed by the cabildo and by all in favor of constitutional principles, but by the aid of the military he succeeded in establishing himself at Panama. Uneasy at his presence, but nothing daunted, the city council, elected in 1821, renewed the demand for the enforcement of the constitution. Samano put them off by evasions, and a tense situation was relieved only by his death on August 3.

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Samano's successor was Juan de la Cruz Mourgeon, who, however, received only the title of captain-general, with the understanding that he was to be made full viceroy when he had reconquered two-thirds of New Granada. Mourgeon also established himself on the isthmus, but completely reversed the policy of his predecessor by putting the new constitution in force. This action of his appeared to give so much satisfaction that he was deceived into the belief that the isthmus was safe for Spain, and applying himself to the task of gaining his viceregal title by making the necessary territorial gains, he got together four vessels and some infantry, cavalry, and artillery, and set sail on October 22, 1821, on what he hoped would be a career of conquest.

No sooner was his back turned than the movement for the independence of Panama proceeded apace: meetings were held, plans were made, the troops in the garrison were tampered with, and finally, on requisition from a number of citizens, there was held on November 21, 1821, an open session of the ayuntamiento, at which a resolution was adopted declaring the Isthmus of Panama independent of Spain. After discussion, in which some favored absolute independence and others union with Peru, it was finally decided that the isthmus should voluntarily annex itself to the Republic of Colombia. José de Fabrega, who assumed the title of Jefe Superior del Istmo, was entrusted with the task of organizing the new government and putting it on a permanent basis. A minute of the declaration of independence and of the various other resolutions passed was drawn up by a committee appointed for the purpose, and was signed by Fabrega, by the bishop, by twenty-five or thirty leading citizens, and by the public notary. Thus peacefully did Panama, after more than 300 years' subjection, pass forever from the dominion of Spain.

In 1829 Venezuela seceded from the republic of Colombia, and in 1830 Quito or Ecuador followed suit. In 1831 the re

maining territory, corresponding to the modern Colombia, was organized into the republic of New Granada, of which the isthmus formed a part. In the following year a constitution was promulgated and the territory of the republic was divided into eighteen provinces, each of which was to have control of its local affairs. The provinces of the isthmus were Panama and Veragua. An attempt made in 1831 by Colonel Alzuru to detach these two provinces from New Granada ended disastrously, for a force from Bogotá defeated the rebels, and Alzuru was captured, tried by court-martial, and executed in the city of Panama. Another attempt at revolution in 1832 was easily nipped in the bud. For about nine years there was comparative quiet on the isthmus, and then, in 1840, the affairs of New Granada being chaotic, Panama and Veragua declared themselves independent under the title of the State of the Isthmus of Panama. A president and a vice-president were elected, and the machinery of government was set in motion. The new republic, however, was short-lived, for in 1841, on a threat of the use of force from Bogotá, the people of Panama peacefully submitted. For some sixteen years thereafter the relations between the isthmus and the other provinces of the republic appear to have been satisfactory.

A combined protest made in 1854 by the consuls of the United States, Great Britain, France, Portugal, Denmark, Ecuador, Brazil, and Peru to the governor of Panama set forth that passengers crossing the isthmus were not afforded proper protection, but the protest produced no official result except a denial of the neglect and a refusal by the governor to recognize the right of the consuls to make such representations to him. The facts, however, had been truly told, for the isthmus was crowded with criminals and desperadoes from every country, attracted thither by the prospect of plunder, and by them passengers were robbed, baggage was rifled, and women were insulted and outraged. In view of this deplorable situation the citi

zens themselves and some foreigners, with the acquiescence of the governor, organized a police force known as the Isthmus Guard, whose function it was to protect the route between Panama and Colon. At its head was placed a young Texas ranger with the peculiar name of Ran Runnels, who had authority to inflict even the death penalty on all found committing, or proved to have committed, crimes of violence. Runnels set to work quietly but determinedly, and having caught and executed some of the robbers, he so terrified the rest that they quickly left the country. When its work was done the Isthmus Guard was dissolved.

Of course the foreigners, other than bandits, who frequented the Isthmus, or passed through it, were not always impeccable, and they often gave great annoyance to the residents and provoked among them feelings of intense hostility. To this cause are to be assigned some minor riots which occurred in 1850 and 1851, and also the great riot which broke out in Panama city on April 15, 1856. The immediate origin of this disturbance was the refusal of one Jack Oliver, a drunken man, to pay for a slice of watermelon which he had taken from a fruit-stand. A fight between foreigners and residents, the latter mostly negroes, then ensued and lasted three hours, when the foreigners were obliged to take refuge in the railroad station. Here they were surrounded by an infuriated mob, who fired upon the building and hit one man. The doors were then closed and those inside were besieged. A force of troops was sent by the government, at the request of the United States consul, to quell the disturbance, but instead of dispersing the mob, they fired into the station and injured some of those who were there congregated. Finally the mob forced their way into the building, killed and wounded several persons, and stole everything they could lay hands on. The casualty list showed that of the foreigners sixteen were slain and fifteen wounded and of the residents two were killed and thirteen wounded. There was subse

quently a long correspondence on the subject between the United States Government and the government of New Granada, and the outcome was that on September 10, 1857, a convention was agreed to between Secretary of State Cass and the minister of New Granada for a settlement of all claims, New Granada admitting its responsibility for the consequences of the riot.

One result of the whole regrettable affair was that American passengers, who were formerly wont to pass some time on the isthmus and to spend their money freely there, thenceforward hurried across the country with the least possible delay, and spent nothing, to the great detriment of the business people of Panama. Another result was that bad feeling was engendered and American citizens were frequently illtreated, so that in February, 1859, the president of the United States found it incumbent on him to ask Congress for the necessary authority to protect Americans on the isthmus.

In 1853 the congress of New Granada made an important change in the constitution, by which the republic became a confederation, and each of its constituent parts was given the right to declare itself independent and to enter into merely federal relations with the central body. In 1855 this privilege was extended to the isthmus, which, as a member of the confederation, was made into a state consisting of the four provinces of Panama, Veragua, Chiriqui, and Azuero. Under this new dispensation the Estado or State of Panama promulgated through a constituent assembly its constitution on September 17, 1855. There was to be a legislature, and the executive of the state was to be a governor elected by popular vote. Until the time came for election to the latter office, the executive power was vested in a jefe superior provisorio.

The first election for governor took place amid stormy and exciting scenes on August 15, 1856. The votes were duly cast, but, as often happens, the real struggle was on the count. Here an extraordinary state

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of affairs was revealed, for the white section of the population claimed that Bartolomé Calvo, a colored man, had been elected by a substantial majority, while the negroes maintained that the choice had fallen on a white man, Manuel Diaz. So high did party and racial feeling run that many white people deemed it necessary to take refuge on a United States warsloop, the St. Mary's, whose commander further took the decisive action of bringing his vessel inshore and landing marines to protect the whites. The legislature finally declared that Calvo had been elected to serve for two years from October 1, 1856. His administration was wise, prudent, and moderate, and he improved the financial condition of the state and fostered education. He had made himself respected by all parties when at the end of nineteen months, on his election to the attorney-generalship of New Granada, he resigned the governorship. The term was completed by Ramon Gamboa, the first designado.

The next governor was José de Obaldia, who held office from October 1, 1858, to September 30, 1860. During his incumbency an attack made by the negroes on the whites in April, 1859, was frustrated only by the intervention of a force of military sent to restore order. On this occasion also American marines were landed, but were not called upon to use their arms. Another similar attack in September, 1860, was put down by the landing of armed blue-jackets from the British ship Clio.

To Obaldia succeeded Santiago de la Guardia. Guardia's administration was disturbed by the imbroglio caused by the secession, in 1860, of the States of Cauca and Bolivar from New Granada and their formation of the independent confederation of the Estados Unidos or United States of Colombia, under the dictatorship of Mosquera. With the object of keeping his own state free from the civil war then going on, Guardia, on September 6, 1861, concluded with the representative of the new nation an agreement by which Panama was to become a member of the confedera