a castle constructed by Charles I. of Anjou. The other fortifica- | and bran are manufactured in the district. Live stock, principally tions have been removed. The handsome cathedral dates from 1629. The town was once famous for its exports of olive-oil, which was stored, until it clarified, in cisterns cut in the rock. This still continues, but to a less extent; the export of wine, however, is increasing, and fruit is also exported.

dissolved in hydrochloric acid and foreign metals are removed by sulphuretted hydrogen; the residual liquid being then fractionally precipitated by sodium carbonate, which throws out the gallium before the zinc. This precipitate is converted into gallium sulphate and finally into a pure specimen of the oxide, from which the metal is obtained by the electrolysis of an alkaline solution. Gallium crystallizes in greyish-white octahedra which melt at 30-15° C. to a silvery-white liquid. It is very hard and but slightly malleable and flexible, although in thin plates it may be bent several times without breaking. The specific gravity of the solid form is 5-956 (24-5° C.), of the liquid 6-069, whilst the specific heats of the two varieties are, for the solid form 0-079 (12-23° C.) and for the liquid o-082 (106-119°) [M. Berthelot, Comples rendus, 1878, 86, p. 786]. It is not appreciably volatilized at a red heat. Chlorine acts on it readily in the cold, bromine not so easily, and iodine only when the mixture is heated. The atomic weight of gallium has been determined by Lecoq de Boisbaudran by ignition of gallium ammonium alum, and also by L. Meyer and K. Seubert.

Gallium oxide Ga2O, is obtained when the nitrate is heated, or by solution of the metal in nitric acid and ignition of the nitrate. It forms a white friable mass which after ignition is insoluble in acids. On heating to redness in a stream of hydrogen it forms a bluish mass which is probably a lower oxide of composition GaO. Gallium forms colourless salts, which in neutral dilute aqueous solutions are converted on heating into basic salts. The gallium salts are precipitated by alkaline carbonates and by barium carbonate, but not by sulphuretted hydrogen unless in acetic acid solution. Potassium ferrocyanide gives a precipitate even in very dilute solution. In neutral solutions, zinc gives a precipitate of gallium oxide. By heating gallium in a regulated stream of chlorine the dichloride GaCl, is obtained as a crystalline mass, which melts at 164° C. and readily decomposes on exposure to moist air. The trichloride GaCl, is similarly formed when the metal is heated in a rapid stream of chlorine, and may be purified by distillation in an atmosphere of nitrogen. It forms very deliquescent long white needles melting at 75-5° C. and boiling at 215-220°C. The bromide, iodide and sulphate are known, as is also gallium ammonium alum. Gallium is best detected by means of its spark spectrum, which gives two violet lines of wave length 4171 and 4031.

GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE (1770-1840), | precipitating the gallium by metallic zinc. The precipitate is American Roman Catholic priest, called "The Apostle of the Alleghanies," was born at the Hague on the 22nd of December 1770. His name is a form of Golitsuin (q.v.), the Russian family from which he came. His father, Dimitri Alexeievich Gallitzin (1735-1803), Russian ambassador to Holland, was an intimate friend of Voltaire and a follower of Diderot; so, too, for many years was his mother, Countess Adelheid Amalie von Schmettau (1748-1806), until a severe illness in 1786 led her back to the Roman Catholic church, in which she had been reared. At the age of seventeen he too became a member of that church. His father had planned for him a diplomatic or military career, and in 1792 he was aide-de-camp to the commander of the Austrian troops in Brabant; but, after the assassination of the king of Sweden, he, like all other foreigners, was dismissed from the service. He then set out to complete his education by travel, and on the 28th of October 1792 arrived in Baltimore, Maryland, where he finally decided to enter the priesthood. He was ordained priest in March 1795, being the first Roman Catholic priest ordained in America, and then worked in the mission at Port Tobacco, Maryland, whence he was soon transferred to the Conewago district. His impulsive objection to some of Bishop Carroll's instructions was sharply rebuked, and he was recalled to Baltimore. But in 1796 he removed to Taneytown, Maryland, and in both Maryland and Pennsylvania worked with such misdirected zcal and autocratic manners that he was again reproved by his bishop in 1798. In the Alleghanies, in 1799, he planned a settlement in what is now Cambria county, Pennsylvania, and bought up much land which he gave or sold at low prices to Catholic immigrants, spending $150,000 or more in the purchase of some 20,000 acres in a spot singularly ill suited for such an enterprise. In 1808, after his father's death, he was disinherited by the emperor Alexander I. of Russia " by reason of your Catholic faith and your ecclesiastical profession"; and although his sister Anne repeatedly promised him his half of the valuable estate and sent him money from time to time, after her death her brother received little or nothing from the estate. The priest, who after his father's death had in 1809 discarded the name of Augustine Smith, under which he had been naturalized, and had taken his real name, was soon deeply in debt. No small part was a loan from Charles Carroll, and when Gallitzin was suggested for the see of Philadelphia in 1814, Bishop Carroll gave as an objection Gallitzin's "great load of debt rashly, though for excellent and charitable purposes, contracted." In 1815 Gallitzin was suggested for the bishopric of Bardstown, Kentucky, and in 1827 for the proposed see of Pittsburg, and he refused the bishopric of Cincinnati. He died at Loretto, the settlement he had founded in Cambria county, on the 6th of May 1840. Among his parishioners Gallitzin was a great power for good. His part in building up the Roman Catholic Church in western Pennsylvania cannot be estimated; but it is said that at his death there were 10,000 members of his church in the district where forty years before he had found a scant dozen. One of the villages he founded bears his name. Among his controversial pamphlets are: A Defence of Catholic Principles (1816), Letter to a Protestant Friend on the Holy Scriptures (1820), Appeal to the Protestant Public (1834), and Six Letters of Advice (1834), in reply to attacks on the Catholic Church by a Presbyterian synod.

See Sarah M. Brownson, Life of D. A. Gallitzin, Prince and Priest (New York, 1873); a brief summary of his life by A. A. Lambing in American Catholic Records (Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, October 1886, pp. 58-68); and a good bibliography by Thomas C. Middleton in The Gallitzin Memorandum Book, in American Catholic Historical Society of Philadelphia, Records, vol. 4, pp. 32 sqq.

GALLIUM (symbol Ga; atomic weight 69-9), one of the metallic chemical elements. It was discovered in 1875 through its spectrum, in a specimen of zinc blende by Lecoq de Boisbaudran (Comptes rendus, 1875, 81, p. 493, and following years). The chief chemical and physical properties of gallium had been predicted many years before by D. Mendeléeff (c. 1869) from a consideration of the properties of aluminium, indium and zinc (see ELEMENT). The metal is obtained from zinc blende (which only contains it in very small quantity) by dissolving the mineral in an acid, and

GALLON, an English measure of capacity, usually of liquids, but also used as a dry measure for corn. A gallon contains four quarts. The word was adapted from an O. Norm. Fr. galon, Central Fr. jalon, and was Latinized as galo and galona. It appears to be connected with the modern French jale, a bowl, but the ultimate origin is unknown; it has been referred without much plausibility to Gr. yavλós, a milk pail. The British imperial gallon of four quarts contains 277 274 cub. in. The old English wine gallon of 231 cub. ia. capacity is the standard gallon of the United States.

GALLOWAY, JOSEPH (1731-1803), American lawyer and politician, one of the most prominent of the Loyalists, was born in West River, Anne Arundel county, Maryland, in 1731. He early removed to Philadelphia, where he acquired a high standing as a lawyer. From 1756 until 1774 (except in 1764) he was one of the most influential members of the Pennsylvania Assembly, over which he presided in 1766-1773. During this period, with his friend Benjamin Franklin, he led the opposition to the Proprietary government, and in 1764 and 1765 attempted to secure a royal charter for the province. With the approach of the crisis in the relations between Great Britain and the American colonies he adopted a conservative course, and, while recognizing the justice of many of the colonial complaints, discouraged radical action and advocated a compromise. As a member of the First Continental Congress, he introduced (28th September 1774) a "Plan of a Proposed Union between Great Britain and the Colonies," and it is for this chiefly that he is remembered. It provided for a president-general appointed by the crown, who should have supreme executive authority over all the colonies, and for a grand council, elected triennially by the several provincial assemblies, and to have such "rights, liberties and privileges as are held and exercised by and in the House of Commons of Great Britain "; the president-general and grand council were to be "an inferior distinct branch of the British legislature, united and incorporated with it." The assent of the

grand council and of the British parliament was to be "requisite | origin), the apparatus for executing the sentence of death by to the validity of all... general acts or statutes," except that hanging. It usually consists of two upright posts and a crossin time of War, all bills for granting aid to the crown, prepared beam, but sometimes of a single upright with a beam projecting by the grand council and approved by the president-general, from the top. The Roman gallows was the cross, and in the shall be valid and passed into a law, without the assent of the older translations of the Bible "gallows " was used for the cross British parliament." The individual colonies, however, were to on which Christ suffered (so galga in Ulfilas's Gothic Testament).* retain control over their strictly internal affairs. The measure Another form of gallows in the middle ages was that of which the was debated at length, was advocated by such influential members famous example at Montfaucon near Paris was the type. This as John Jay and James Duane of New York and Edward was a square structure formed of columns of masonry connected Rutledge of South Carolina, and was eventually defeated only by in each tier with cross-pieces of wood, and with pits beneath, the vote of six colonies to five. Galloway declined a second into which the bodies fell after disarticulation by exposure to the election to Congress in 1775, joined the British army at New weather. Brunswick, New Jersey (December 1776), advised the British to attack Philadelphia by the Delaware, and during the British occupation of Philadelphia (1777-1778) was superintendent of the port, of prohibited articles, and of police of the city. In October 1778 he went to England, where he remained until his death at Watford, Hertfordshire, on the 29th of August 1803. After he left America his life was attainted, and his property, valued at £40,000, was confiscated by the Pennsylvania Assembly, a loss for which he received a partial recompense in the form of a small parliamentary pension. He was one of the clearest thinkers and ablest political writers among the American Loyalists, and, according to Prof. Tyler, "shared with Thonias Hutchinson the supreme place among American statesmen opposed to the Revolution."

Among his pamphlets are A Candid Examination of the Mutual Claims of Great Britain and the Colonies (1775); Historical and Political Reflections on the Rise and Progress of the American Rebellion (1780); Cool Thoughts on the Consequences to Great Britain of American Independence (1780); and The Claim of the American Loyalists Reviewed and Maintained upon Incontrovertible Principles of Law and Justice (1788).

See Thomas Balch (Ed.), The Examination of Joseph Galloway by a Committee of the House of Commons (Philadelphia, 1855); Ernest H. Baldwin, Joseph Galloway, the Loyalist Politician (New Haven, 1903); and M. C. Tyler, Literary History of the American Revolution (2 vols., New York, 1897).

GALLOWAY, THOMAS (1796-1851), Scottish mathematician, was born at Symington, Lanarkshire, on the 26th of February 1796. In 1812 he entered the university of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself specially in mathematics. In 1823 he was appointed one of the teachers of mathematics at the military college of Sandhurst, and in 1833 he was appointed actuary to the Amicable Life Assurance Office, the oldest institution of that kind in London; in which situation he remained till his death on the 1st of November 1851. Galloway was a voluminous, though, for the most part, an anonymous writer. His most interesting paper is "On the Proper Motion of the Solar System," and was published in the Phil. Trans., 1847. He contributed largely to the seventh edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and also wrote several scientific papers for the Edinburgh Review and various scientific journals. His Encyclopaedia article, "Probability," was published separately.

See Transactions of the Royal Astronomical Society (1852). GALLOWAY, a district in the south-west of Scotland, comprising the counties of Kirkcudbright and Wigtown. It was the Novantia of the Romans, and till the end of the 12th century included Carrick, now the southern division of Ayrshire. Though the designation has not been adopted civilly, its use historically and locally has been long established. Thus the Bruces were lords of Galloway, and the title of earl of Galloway (created 1623) is now held by a branch of the Stewarts. Galloway also gives its name to a famous indigenous breed of black hornless cattle. See KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE and WIGTOWNSHIRE. GALLOWS (a common Teutonic word-cf. Goth. galga, O. H. Ger. galgo, Mod. Ger. Galgen, A.S. galzan, &c.—of uncertain The word "gallows "is the plural of a word (galwe, galowe, gallow) which, according to the New English Dictionary, was occasionally used as late as the 17th century, though from the 13th century onwards the plural form was more usual. Caxton speaks both of "a gallows," and, in the older form, of " a pair of gallows," this referring probably to the two upright posts. From the 16th century onwards gallows" has been consistently treated as a singular form, a new plural, "gallowses," having come into use. The latter, though

According to actual usage the condemned man stands on a platform or drop (introduced in England in 1760), the rope hangs from the cross-beam, and the noose at its end is placed round his neck. He is hanged by the falling of the drop, the knot in the noose being so adjusted that the spinal cord is broken by the fall and death instantaneous. In old times the process was far less merciful; sometimes the condemned man stood in a cart, which was drawn away from under him; sometimes he had to mount a ladder, from which he was thrust by the hangman. Until 1832 malefactors in England were sometimes hanged by being drawn up from the platform by a heavy weight at the other end of the rope. Death in these cases was by strangulation. At the present time executions in the United Kingdom are private, the gallows being erected in a chamber or enclosed space set apart for the purpose inside the gaol.

the first instance to have meant a crooked stick, was originally The word "gibbet," the Fr. gibct, gallows, which appears in used in English synonymously with gallows, as it sometimes still is. Its later and more special application, however, was to criminals were suspended after their execution. These gibbets the upright posts with a projecting arm on which the bodies of were erected in conspicuous spots, on the tops of hills (Gallows Hill is still a common name) or near frequented roads. The bodies, smeared with pitch to prevent too rapid decomposition, hung in chains as a warning to evildoers. From the gruesome custom comes the common use of the word "to gibbet " for any holding up to public infamy or contempt.

GALLS. In animals galls occur mostly on or under the skin of living mammals and birds, and are produced by Acaridea, and by dipterous insects of the genus Oestrus. Signor Moriggia' has described and figured a horny excrescence, nearly 8 in. in length, from the back of the human hand, which was caused by Acarus domesticus. What are commonly known as galls are vegetable excrescences, and, according to the definition of Lacaze-Duthiers, comprise "all abnormal vegetable productions developed on plants by the action of animals, more particularly by insects, whatever may be their form, bulk or situation." For the larvae of their makers the galls provide shelter and sustenance. The exciting cause of the hypertrophy, in the case of the typical galls, appears to be a minute quantity of some irritating fluid, or virus, secreted by the female insect, and deposited with her egg in the puncture made by her ovipositor in the cortical or foliaceous parts of plants. This virus causes the rapid enlargement and subdivision of the cells affected by it, so as to form the tissues of the gall. Oval or larval irritation also, without doubt, plays an important part in the formation of many galls. Though, as Lacaze-Duthiers remarks, a certain relation is necessary between the “stimulus " and the “supporter of the stimulus," as evidenced by the limitation in the majority of cases of each species of gall-insect to some one vegetable structure, still it must be the quality of the irritant not strictly obsolete, is now seldom used; the formation is felt to be somewhat uncouth, so that the use of the word in the plural in commonly evaded" (New Eng. Dict. s.v. "Gallows "). 2 In Med. Lat." gallows" was translated by furia and patibulum, both words applied in classical Latin to a fork-shaped instrument of punishment fastened on the neck of slaves and criminals. Furia, in feudal law, was the right granted to tenants having major jurisdiction to erect a gallows within the limits of their fiel. Cf. Wace, Roman de Rou, iii. 8349: "Et il a le gibet saisi

Qui a son destre braz pendi." 'Quoted in Zoological Record, iv. (1867), p. 192.

the parenchyma proper; vessels which, without forming a complete investment, underlie the parenchyma; a hard protective layer; and lastly, within that, an alimentary central mass inhabited by the growing larva,

Galls are formed by insects of several orders. Among the Hymenoptera are the gall-wasps (Cynips and its allies), which infect the various species of oak. They are small insects, having straight antennae, and a compressed, usually very short abdomen with the second or second and third segments greatly developed, and the rest imbricated, and concealing the partially coiled ovipositor. The transformations from the larval state are completed within the gall, out of which the imago, or perfect insect, tunnels its way,-usually in autumn, though sometimes, as has been observed of some individuals of Cynips Kollari, after hibernation.

“

Among the commoner of the galls of the Cynipidae are the "oak-apple" or " oak-sponge " of Andricus terminalis, Fab.; the "currant" or "berry galls" of Spathegaster baccarum, L., above mentioned; and the "oak-spangles" of Neuroterus lenticularis, Oliv., generally reputed to be fungoid growths, until the discovery of their true nature by Frederick Smith,1o and the succulent "cherry-galls" of Dryophanta scutellaris, Oliv. The "marble" or Devonshire woody galls of oak-buds, which often destroy the leading shoots of young trees, are produced by Cynips Kollari," already alluded to. They were first introduced into Devonshire about the year 1847, had become common near Birmingham by 1866, and two or three years later were observed in several parts of Scotland. They contain about 17% of tannin." On account of their regular form they have been used, threaded on wire, for making ornamental baskets, The large purplish Mecca or Bussorah galls, produced on a species of oak by Cynips insana, Westw., have been regarded by many writers as the Dead Sea fruit, mad-apples (mala insana), or apples of Sodom (poma sodomitica), alluded to by Josephus and others, which, however, are stated by E. Robinson (Bibl. Researches in Palestine, vol. i. pp. 522-524, 3rd ed., 1867) to be the singular fruit called by the Arabs 'Ösher, produced by the Asclepias gigantea or procera of botanists. What in California are known as "flea seeds" are oak-galls made by a species of Cynips; in August they become detached from the leaves that bear them, and are caused to jump by the spasmodic movements of the grub within the thin-walled gall-cavity."

of the tissues, rather than the specific peculiarities or the part of the plant affected, that principally determines the nature of the gall. Thus the characteristics of the currant-gall of Spathegaster baccarum, L., which occurs alike on the leaves and on the flower-stalks of the oak, are obviously due to the act of oviposition, and not to the functions of the parts producing it; the bright red galls of the saw-fly Nematus gallicola are found on four different species of willow, Salix fragilis, S. alba, S. caprea and S. cinerea; and the galls of a Cynipid, Biorhiza aptera, usually developed on the rootlets of the oak, have been procured also from the deodar. Often the gall bears no visible resemblance to the structures out of which it is developed; commonly, however, outside the larval chamber, or gall proper, and giving to the gall its distinctive form, are to be detected certain more or less modified special organs of the plant. The gall of Cecidomyia strobilina, formed from willow-buds, is mainly a rosette of leaves the stalks of which have had their growth arrested. The small, smooth, seed-shaped gall of the American Cynips seminator, Harris, according to W. F. Bassett, is the petiole, and its terminal tuft of woolly hairs the enormously developed pubescence of the young oak-leaf. The moss-like covering of the "bedeguars" of the wild rose, the galls of a Cynipid, Rhodites rosae, represents leaves which have been developed with scarcely any parenchyma between their fibro-vascular bundles; and the " artichoke-galls" or "oak-strobile," produced by Aphilothrix gemmac, L., which insect arrests the development of the acorn, consists of a cupule to which more or less modified leaf-scales are attached, with a peduncular, oviform, inner gall. E. Newman held the view that many oak-galls are pseudobalani or false acorns: "to produce an acorn has been the intention of the oak, but the gall-fly has frustrated the attempt." Their formation from buds which normally would have yielded leaves and shoots is explained by Parfitt as the outcome of an effort at fructification induced by oviposition, such as has been found to result in several plants from injury by insect-agency or otherwise. Galls vary remarkably in size and shape according to the species of their makers. The polythalamous gall of Aphilothrix radicis, found on the roots of old oak-trees, may attain the size of a man's fist; the galls of another Cynipid, Andricus occultus, Tschek, which occurs on the male flowers of Quercus sessiliflora, is 2 millimetres, or barely a line, in length. Many galls are brightly coloured, as, for instance, the oak-leaf hairy galls of Spathegaster tricolor, which are of crimson hue, more or less diffused according to exposure to light. Common gall-nuts, nut-galls, or oak-galls, the Aleppo, Turkey, The variety of forms of galls is very great. Some are like urns or Levant galls of commerce (Ger. Galläpfel, levantische or cups, others lenticular. The "knoppern" galls of Cynips Gallen; Fr. noix de Galle), are produced on Quercus inpolycera, Gir., are cones having the broad, slightly convex fcctoria, a variety of Q. Lusitanica, Webb, by Cynips (Diplolepis, upper surface surrounded with a toothed ridge. Of the Ceylonese Latr.) tinctoria, L., or C. gallae tinctoriae Oliv. Aleppo galls galls, some are as symmetrical as a composite flower when in (gallae halepenses) are brittle, hard, spherical bodies, - in. in bud, others smooth and spherical like a berry; some protected diameter, ridged and warty on the upper half, and light brown by long spines, others clothed with yellow wool formed of long to dark greyish-yellow within. What are termed "blue," cellular hairs, others with regularly tufted hairs." The characters "black," or " green "galls contain the insect; the inferior" white" of galls are constant, and as a rule exceedingly diagnostic, even galls, which are lighter coloured, and not so compact, heavy or when, as in the case of ten different gall-gnats of an American astringent, are gathered after its escape (see fig. 1.). Less valued willow, Salix humilis, it is difficult or impossible to tell the full- are the galls of Tripoli (Taraplus or Tarabulus, whence the name grown insects that produce them from one another. In degree "Tarablous galls"). The most esteemed Syrian galls, according of complexity of internal structure galls differ considerably. to Pereira, are those of Mosul on the Tigris. Other varieties of Some are monothalamous, and contain but one larva of the gall-nut-galls, besides the above-mentioned, are employed in Europe maker, whilst others are many-celled and numerously inhabited. The largest class are the unilocular, or simple, external galls, divided by Lacaze-Duthiers into those with and those without a superficial protective layer or rind, and composed of hard, or spongy, or cellular tissue. In a common gall-nut that authority distinguished seven constituent portions: an epidermis; a subdermic cellular tissue; a spongy and a hard layer, composing

1 P. Cameron, Scottish Naturalist, ii. pp. 11-15.
Entomologist, vii. p. 47.

See in Proc. Entom. Soc. of London for the Year 1873, p. xvi.
See A. Müller, Gardener's Chronicle (1871), pp. 1162 and 1518;

and E. A. Fitch, Entomologist, xi. p. 129.

Entomologist, vi. pp. 275-278, 339-340.

Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien, xxi. p. 799.

Darwin, Variations of Animals and Plants under Domestication,

ii. p. 282.

for various purposes. Commercial gall-nuts have yielded on analysis from 26 (H. Davy) to 77 (Buchner) % of tannin (see "Recherches pour servir à l'histoire des galles," Ann. des sci. nat. xix. pp. 293 sqq.

between N. lenticularis and Spathegaster baccarum (see E.A. Ormerod, According to Dr Adler, alternation of generations takes place

Entomologist, xi. p. 34).

10 See Westwood, Introd. to the Mod. Classif. of Insects, ii. (1840) p. 130.

"For figures and descriptions of insect and gall, see Entomologist, iv. p. 17, vii. p. 241, ix. p. 53, xi. p. 131.

12 Scottish Naturalist, i. (1871) p. 116, &c.

13 Vinen, Journ. de pharm. et de chim. xxx. (1856) p. 290; English Ink-Galls," Pharm. Journ. 2nd ser. iv. p. 520.

14 See Pereira, Materia Medica, vol. ii, pt. i. p. 347; Pharm. Journ. Ist ser. vol. viii. pp. 422-424.

15 See R. H. Stretch and C. D. Gibbes, Proc. California Acad. of Sciences, iv. pp. 265 and 266.

The dipterous gall-formers include the gall-midges, or gallgnats (Cecidomyidae), minute slender-bodied insects, with bodies usually covered with long hairs, and the wings folded over the back. Some of them build cocoons within their galls, others descend to the ground or become pupae. The true willow-galls FIG. 2.-a, Chinese gall (about nat. size); b, ditto broken, showing are the work either of these or of saw-flies. Their galls are to be

met with on a great variety of plants of widely distinct genera, there are, among the Coleoptera, certain Curculionids (galle.g. the ash, maple, horn-beam, oak, grape-vine, alder, goose-weevils), and species of the exotic Sagridae and Lamiadae and an berry, blackberry, pine, juniper, thistle, fennel, meadowsweet," 1A Complete History of Drugs (translation), p. 169 (London, 1748). F. Porter Smith, Contrib. towards the Mat. Medica... of China, p. 100 (1871).