was captured by Alexander Jannaeus (c. 83 B.C.), rebuilt by the
Romans (c. A.D. 65), burned by the Jews in revenge for the
massacre at Caesarea, and again plundered and depopulated
by Annius, the general of Vespasian; but, in spite of these
disasters, it was still in the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Christian
era one of the wealthiest and most flourishing cities of Palestine.
It was a centre of Greek civilization, devoted especially to the
worship of Artemis, and producing famous teachers, of whom
Stephen the Byzantine mentions Ariston, Kerykos and Plato.
As late as 1121 the soldiers of Baldwin II. found it defended by
a castle built by a king of Damascus; but at the beginning of
the following century the Arabian geographer Yaqut speaks of
it as deserted and overthrown. The ruins of Jerash, discovered
about 1806, and since then frequently visited and described,
still attest the splendour of the Roman city. They are distributed
along both banks of the Kerwan, a brook which flows south
through the Wadi-cd-Der to join the Zerka or Jabbok; but all
the principal buildings are situated on the level ground to the
right of the stream. The town walls, which can still be traced
and indeed are partly standing, had a circuit of not more than
2 m., and the main street was less than half a mile in length;
but remains of buildings on the road for fully a mile beyond the
south gate, show that the town had outgrown the limit of its
fortifications. The most striking feature of the ruins is the pro- |
fusion of columns, no fewer than 230 being even now in position;
the main street is a continuous colonnade, a large part of which
is still entire, and it terminates to the south in a forum of similar
formation. Among the public buildings still recognizable are a
theatre capable of accommodating 6000 spectators, a naumachia
(circus for naval combats) and several temples, of which the
largest was probably the grandest structure in the city, possessing
a portico of Corinthian pillars 38 ft. high. The desolation of
the city is probably due to earthquake; and the absence of
Moslem erections or restorations seems to show that the disaster
took place before the Mahommedan period.

The town is now occupied by a colony of Circassians, whose
houses have been built with materials from the earlier buildings,
and there has been much destruction of the interesting ruins.
"The country of the Gerasenes" (Matt. viii. 28 and parallels; |
other readings, Gadarenes, Gergesenes) must be looked for in
another quarter-on the E. coast of the Sea of Galilee, probably
in the neighbourhood of the modern Khersa (C. W. Wilson in
Recovery of Jerusalem, p. 369).
(R. A. S. M.)
GÉRAULT-RICHARD, ALFRED LÉON (1860- ), French
journalist and politician, was born at Bonnétable in the depart-
ment of Sarthe, of a peasant family. He began life as a working
upholsterer, first at Mans, then at Paris (1880), where his peasant
and socialist songs soon won him fame in the Montmartre quarter.
Lissagaray, the communist, offered him a position on La Bataille,
and he became a regular contributor to the advanced journals,
especially to La Petite République, of which he became editor-in-❘
chief in 1897. In 1893 he founded Le Chambard, and was im-
prisoned for a year (1894) on account of a personal attack upon
the president, Casimir-Périer. In January 1895 he was elected
to the chamber as a Socialist for the thirteenth arrondissement
of Paris. He was defeated at the elections of 1898 at Paris,
but was re-elected in 1902 and in 1906 by the colony of
Guadeloupe.

GERBER, ERNST LUDWIG (1746-1819), German musician, author of a famous dictionary of musicians, was born at Sondershausen in the principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen on the 29th of September 1746. His father, Henry Nicolas Gerber (1702-1775), a pupil of J. S. Bach, was an organist and composer of some distinction, and under his direction Ernst Ludwig at an early age had made great progress in his musical studies. In 1765 he went to Leipzig to study law, but the claims of music, which had gained additional strength from his acquaintanceship | with J. A. Hiller, soon came to occupy almost his sole attention. On his return to Sondershausen he was appointed music teacher to the children of the prince, and in 1775 he succeeded his father as court organist. Afterwards he devoted much of his time to the study of the literature and history of music, and with this

view he made himself master of several modern languages. His Historisch-biographisches Lexikon der Tonkünstler appeared in 1790 and 1792 in two volumes; and the first volume of what was virtually an improved and corrected edition of this work was published in 1810 under the title Neues historisch-biographisches Lexikon der Tonkünstler, followed by other three volumes in 1812, 1813 and 1814. Gerber also contributed a number of papers to musical periodicals, and published several minor musical compositions. He died at Sondershausen on the 30th of June 1819.

GERBERON, GABRIEL (1628–1711), French Jansenist monk, was born on the 12th of August 1628 at St Calais, in the department of Sarthe. At the age of twenty he took the vows of the Benedictine order at the abbey of Ste Melaine, Rennes, and afterwards taught rhetoric and philosophy in several monasteries. His open advocacy of Jansenist opinions, however, caused his superiors to relegate him to the most obscure houses of the order, and finally to keep him under surveillance at the abbey of St Germain-des-Prés at Paris. Here he wrote a defence of the doctrine of the Real Presence against the Calvinists in the form of an apology for Rupert, abbot of Deutz (Apologia pro Ruperto abbate Tuitensi, Paris, 1669). In 1676 he published at Brussels, under the name of "Sieur Flore de Ste Foi" his Miroir de la piété chrétienne, an enlarged edition of which appeared at Liége in the following year. This was condemned by certain archbishops and theologians as the repetition of the five condemned propositions of Jansen, and Gerberon defended it, under the name of "Abbé Valentin " in Le Miroir sans tache (Paris, 1680). He had by this time aroused against him the full fury of the Jesuits, and at their instigation a royal provost was sent to Corbie to arrest him. He had, however, just time to escape, and fled to the Low Countries, where he lived in various towns. He was invited by the Jansenist clergy to Holland, where he wrote another controversial work against the Protestants: Défense de l'Église Romain contre la calomnie des Protestants (Cologne, 1688-1691). This produced unpleasantness with the Reformed clergy, and feeling himself no longer safe he returned to Brussels. In 1700 he published his history of Jansenism (Histoire générale du Jansénisme), a dry work, by which, however, he is best remembered. He adhered firmly to the Augustinian doctrine of Predestination, and on the 30th of May 1703 he was arrested at Brussels at the instance of the archbishop of Malines, and ordered to subscribe the condemnation of the five sentences of Jansen. On his refusal, he was handed over to his superiors and imprisoned in the citadel of Amiens and afterwards at Vincennes. Every sort of pressure was brought to bear upon. him to make his submission, and at last, broken in health and spirit, he consented to sign a formula which the cardinal de Noailles claimed as a recantation. Upon this he was released in 1710. The first use he made of his freedom was to write a work (which, however, his friends prudently prevented him from publishing), Le Vaine Triomphe du cardinal de Noailles, containing a virtual withdrawal of the compulsory recantation. He died at the abbey of St Denis on the 29th of March 1711.

GERBERT, MARTIN (1720-1793), German theologian, historian and writer on music, belonged to the noble family of Gerbert von Hornau, and was born at Horb on the Neckar, Württemberg, on the 12th (or 11th or 13th) of August 1720. He was educated at Freiburg in the Breisgau, at Klingenau in Switzerland and at the Benedictine abbey of St Blasien in the Black Forest, where in 1737 he took the vows. In 1744 he was ordained priest, and immediately afterwards appointed professor, first of philosophy and later of theology. Between 1754 and 1764 he published a series of theological treatises, their main tendency being to modify the rigid scholastic system by an appeal to the Fathers, notably Augustine; from 1759 to 1762 he travelled in Germany, Italy and France, mainly with a view to examining the collections of documents in the various monastic libraries. In 1764 he was elected prince-abbot of St Blasien, and proved himself a model ruler both as abbot and prince. His examination of archives during his travels had awakened in him a taste for historical research, and under his rule St

Blasien became a notable centre of the methodical study of
history; it was here that Marquard Herrgott wrote his Monu-
menta domus Austriacae, of which the first two volumes were
edited, for the second edition, by Gerbert, who also published a
Codex epistolaris Rudolphi I., Romani regis (1772) and De
Rudolpho Suevico comite de Rhinfelden, duce et rege, deque ejus
familia (1785). It was, however, in sacramental theology,
liturgiology, and notably ecclesiastical music that Gerbert was
mainly interested. In 1774 he published two volumes De cantu
et musica sacra; in 1777, Monumenta veteris liturgiae Alemannicae; | Augustonemětum (mod. Clermont-Ferrand).
and in 1784, in three volumes, Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica
sacra, a collection of the principal writers on church music from
the 3rd century till the invention of printing. The materials |
for this work he had gathered during his travels, and although
it contains many textual errors, its publication has been of great |
importance for the history of music, by preserving writings
which might either have perished or remained unknown. His
interest in music led to his acquaintance with the composer
Gluck, who became his intimate friend.

break into a gallop. The Somali form has been separated as
L. sclateri, but is not more than a local race. (See ANTELOPE.)
GERGOVIA (mod. Gergovie), in ancient geography, the chief
town of the Arverni, situated on a hill in the Auvergne, about
8 m. from the Puy de Dôme, France. Julius Caesar attacked
it in 52 B.C., but was beaten off; some walls and earthworks
seem still to survive from this period. Later, when Gaul had been
subdued, the place was dismantled and its Gaulish inhabitants
resettled 4 m. away in the plain at the new Roman city of

As a prince of the Empire Gerbert was devoted to the interests of the house of Austria; as a Benedictine abbot he was opposed to Joseph II.'s church policy. In the Febronian controversy (see FEBRONIANISM) he had early taken a mediating attitude, and it was largely due to his influence that Bishop Hontheim had been induced to retract his extreme views.

GERHARD, FRIEDRICH WILHELM EDUARD (1795-1867), German archaeologist, was born at Posen on the 29th of November 1795, and was educated at Breslau and Berlin. The reputation he acquired by his Lectiones Apollonianae (1816) led soon afterwards to his being appointed professor at the gymnasium of Posen. On resigning that office in 1819, on account of weakness of the eyes, he went in 1822 to Rome, where he remained for fifteen years. He contributed to Platner's Beschreibung der Stadt Rom, then under the direction of Bunsen, and was one of the principal originators and during his residence in Italy director of the Instituto di corrispondenza archeologica, founded at Rome in 1828. Returning to Germany in 1837 he was appointed archaeologist at the Royal Museum of Berlin, and in 1844 was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences, and a professor in the university. He died at Berlin on the 12th of May 1867. Besides a large number of archaeological papers in periodicals, in the Annali of the Institute of Rome, and in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy, and several illustrated catalogues of Greek, Roman and other antiquities in the Berlin, Naples and Vatican Museums (Stuttgart, 1827-1844); Auserlesene griech. Vasenbilder (1839-1858); Etruskische Spiegel (1839-1865); Hyperboreisch-rom. Studien (vol. i., 1833; vol. ii, 1852): Prodromus mytholog. Kunsterklärung (Stutt gart and Tübingen, 1828); and Griech. Mythologie (1854-1855). His Gesammelte akademische Abhandlungen und kleine Schriften were published posthumously in 2 vols., Berlin, 1867.

In 1768 the abbey of St Blasien, with the library and church, was burnt to the ground, and the splendid new church which rose on the ruins of the old (1783) remained until its destruction by fire in 1874, at once a monument of Gerbert's taste in archi-Gerhard was the author of the following works: Antike Bildwerke tecture and of his Habsburg sympathies. It was at his request that it was made the mausoleum of all the Austrian princes buried outside Austria, whose remains were solemnly transferred to its vaults. In connexion with its consecration he published his Historia Nigrae Silvae, ordinis S. Benedicti coloniae (3 vols., St Blasien, 1783).

Gerbert, who was beloved and respected by Catholics and Protestants alike, died on the 3rd of May 1793.

See Joseph Bader, Das ehemalige Kloster St Blasien und seine Gelehrtenakademie (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1874), which contains a chronological list of Gerbert's works.

GERBIL, or GERBILLE, the name of a group of small, elegant, large-eyed, jumping rodents typified by the North African Gerbillus aegyptiacus (or gerbillus), and forming a special subfamily, Gerbillinae, of the rat tribe or Muridae. They are found over the desert districts of both Asia and Africa, and are classed❘ in the genera Gerbillus (or Tatera), Pachyuromys, Merioncs, Psammomys and Rhombomys, with further divisions into subgenera. They have elongated hind-limbs and long hairy tails; and progress by leaps, in the same manner as jerboas, from which they differ in having five hind-toes. The cheek-teeth have transverse plates of enamel on the crowns; the number of such plates diminishing from three in the first tooth to one or one and a half in the third. The upper incisor teeth are generally marked by grooves. Gerbils are inhabitants of open sandy plains, where they dwell in burrows furnished with numerous exits, and containing large grass-lined chambers. The Indian G. indicus produces at least a dozen young at a birth. All are more or less completely nocturnal.

GERENUK, the Somali name of a long-necked aberrant gazelle, commonly known as Waller's gazelle (Lithocranius walleri), and ranging from Somaliland to Kilimanjaro. The long neck and limbs, coupled with peculiarities in the structure of the skull, entitle the gerenuk, which is a large species, to represent a genus. The horns of the bucks are heavy, and have a peculiar forward curvature at the tips; the colour of the coat is red-fawn, with a broad brown band down the back. Gerenuk are browsing ruminants, and, in Somaliland, are found in small family-partics, and feed more by browsing on the branches and leaves of trees and shrubs than by grazing. Frequently they raise themselves by standing on their hind-legs with the fore-feet resting against the trunk of the tree on which they are feeding. Their usual pace is an awkward trot, not unlike that of a camel; and they seldom

GERHARD, JOHANN (1582–1637), Lutheran divine, was born in Quedlinburg on the 17th of October 1582. In his fifteenth year, during a dangerous illness, he came under the personal influence of Johann Arndt, author of Das wahre Christenthum, and resolved to study for the church. He entered the university of Wittenberg in 1599, and first studied philosophy. He also attended lectures in theology, but, a relative having persuaded him to change his subject, he studied medicine for two years. In 1603, however, he resumed his theological reading at Jena, and in the following year received a new impulse from J. W. Winckelmann (1551-1626) and Balthasar Mentzer (1565-1627) at Marburg. Having graduated and begun to give lectures at Jena in 1605, he in 1606 accepted the invitation of John Casimir, duke of Coburg, to the superintendency of Heldburg and mastership of the gymnasium; soon afterwards he became general superintendent of the duchy, in which capacity he was engaged in the practical work of ecclesiastical organization until 1616, when he became theological professor at Jena, where the remainder of his life was spent. Here, with Johann Major and Johann Himmel, he formed the "Trias Johannea." Though still comparatively young, Gerhard had already come to be regarded as the greatest living theologian of Protestant Germany; in the numerous "disputations" of the period he was always protagonist, while on all public and domestic questions touching on religion or morals his advice was widely sought. It is recorded that during the course of his lifetime he had received repeated calls to almost every university in Germany (e.g. Giessen, Altdorf, Helmstädt, Jena, Wittenberg), as well as to Upsala in Sweden. He died in Jena on the 20th of August 1637.

His writings are numerous, alike in exegetical, polemical, dogmatic and practical theology. To the first category belong the (1617), the Comment, super priorem D. Petri epistolam (1641), and Commentarius in harmoniam historiae evangelicae de passione Christi also his commentaries on Genesis (1637) and on Deuteronomy (1658). Of a controversial character are the Confessio Catholica (1633-1637), an extensive work which seeks to prove the evangelical and catholic character of the doctrine of the Augsburg Confession from the writings of approved Roman Catholic authors; and the Loci communes theologici (1610-1622), his principal contribution to science, in which Lutheranism is expounded nervose, solide,

in one self-existing supreme ruler of the Universe-the Divine | Godhead-the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit-the tripersonality." Hence their practice of triple immersion, which provides that the candidate shall kncel in the water and be immersed, face first, three times-in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. (From this practice the sect received the less commonly used nickname Dompelaers," meaning" tumblers.") They accept implicitly and literally the New Testament as the infallible guide in spiritual matters, holding it to be the inspired word of God, revealed through Jesus Christ and, by inspiration, through the Apostles. They also believe in the inspiration of the Old Testament. In their celebration of the communion service they aim exactly to imitate the forms observed by Christ. It is celebrated in the evening, and is accompanied by the ancient love feast (partaken by all communicants seated at a common table), by the ceremony of the washing of feet and by the salutation of the holy kiss, the three last-named ceremonies being observed by the sexes separately. They pray over their sick and, when so requested, anoint them with oil. They are rigid non-resistants, and will not bear arms or study the art of war; they refuse to take oaths, and discountenance going to law over issues that can possibly be settled out of the courts. The taking of interest was at first forbidden, but that prohibition is not now insisted upon. They "testify" against the use of intoxicating liquor and tobacco, and advocate simplicity in dress. In its earlier history the sect opposed voting or taking any active part in political affairs, but these restrictions have quite generally disappeared. Similarly the earlier prejudice against higher education, and the maintenance of institutions for that purpose, has given place to greater liberality along those lines. In 1782 the sect forbade slaveholding by its members.

The church officers (generally unpaid) comprise bishops (or ministers), elders, teachers, deacons (or visiting brethren) and deaconesses-chiefly aged women who are permitted at times to take leading parts in church services. The bishops are chosen. from the teachers; they are itinerant, conduct marriage and funeral services, and are present at communions, at ordinations, when deacons are chosen or elected, and at trials for the excommunication of members. The elders are the first or oldest teachers of congregations, for which there is no regular bishop. They have charge of the meetings of such congregations, and participate in excommunication proceedings, besides which they preach, exhort, baptize, and may, when needed, take the offices of the deacons. The teachers, who are chosen by vote, may also exhort or preach, when their services are needed for such purposes, and may, at the request of a bishop, perform marriage or baptismal ceremonies. The deacons have general oversight of the material affairs of the congregation, and are especially charged with the care of poor widows and their children. In the discharge of these duties they are expected to visit each family in the congregation at least once a year. The government of the church is chiefly according to the congregational principle, and the women have an equal voice with the men; but annual meetings, attended by the bishops, teachers and other delegates from the several congregations are held, and at these sessions the larger questions involving church polity are considered and decided by a committee of five bishops.

An early secession from the general body of Dunkers was that of the Seventh Day Dunkers, whose distinctive principle was that the seventh day was the true Sabbath. Their founder was Johann Conrad Beissel (1690–1768), a native of Eberbach and one of the first emigrants, who, after living as a hermit for several years on Mill Creek, Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, founded the sect (1725), then again lived as a hermit in a cave (formerly occupied by another hermit, one Elimelech) on the Cocalico Creek in Pennsylvania, and in 1732-1735 established a semi-monastic community (the " Order of the Solitary ") with a convent (the "Sister House ") and a monastery (the " Brother House") at Ephrata, in what is now Lancaster county, about 55 m. W. by N. from Philadelphia. Among the industries of the men were printing (in both English and German), book

binding, tanning, quarrying, and the operation of a saw mill, a bark mill, and perhaps a pottery; the wamen did embroidery, quilting, and engrossing in a beautiful but peculiar hand, known as Fracturschrift. The monastic feature was gradually abandoned, and in 1814 the Society was incorporated as the Seventh Day Baptists, its affairs being placed in the hands of a board of trustees. More important in the history of the modern church was the secession, in the decade between 1880 and 1890, of the Old Order Brethren, who opposed Sunday Schools and the missionary work of the Brethren, in Asia Minor and India, and in several European countries; and also in 1882 of the | radicals, or Progressives, who objected to a distinctive dress and to the absolute supremacy of the yearly conferences. Higher education was long forbidden and is consistently opposed by the Old Order. The same element in the Brethren opposed a census, but according to Howard Miller's census of 1880 (Record of the Faithful) the number of Dunkers was 59,749 in that year; by the United States census of 1890 it was then 73,795; the figures for 1904 are given by Henry King Carroll in his "Statistics of the Churches" in the Christian Advocate (Jan. 5. 1905): Conservatives, or German Baptist Brethren, 95,000; Old Order, 4000; Progressives or Brethren, 15,000; Seventh Day, 194; total, 114,194. In 1909 the German Baptist Brethren had an estimated membership of approximately 100,000, and the Brethren of 18,000. The main body, or Conservatives, support schools at Huntingdon, Pennsylvania; Mt. Morris, Illinois; Lordsburg, California, McPherson, Kansas; Bridgewater, Virginia; Canton, Ohio; Chicago, Illinois; North Manchester, Indiana; Plattsburg, Missouri; Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania; Union Bridge, Maryland; and Fruitdale, Alabama. They have a publishing house at Elgin, Illinois, and maintain missions in Denmark, Sweden, France, Italy, India and China. The Progressives have a college, a theological seminary and a publishing house at Ashland, Ohio; and they carry on missionary work in Canada, South America and Persia.

AUTHORITIES.-Lamech and Agrippa. Chronicon Ephratense, in German (Ephrata, Penn., 1786) and in English (Lancaster, 1889); G. N. Falkenstein, "The German Baptist Brethren, or Dunkers, part 8 of "Pennsylvania: The German Influence in its Settlement and Development," in vol. x. of the Pennsylvania German Society, Proceedings and Addresses (Lancaster, Penn., 1900); Julius Friedrich Sachse, The German Sectarians of Pennsylvania, 1742-1800: A Critical and Legendary History of the Ephrata Cloister and the Dunkers (Philadelphia, 1900); and John Lewis Gillin, The Dunkers: A Sociological Interpretation (New York, 1906), a doctor's dissertation, with full bibliography.

GERMAN CATHOLICS (Deutschkatholiken), the name assumed in Germany towards the close of 1844 by certain dissentients from the Church of Rome. The most prominent leader of the German Catholic movement was Johann Ronge, a priest who in the Sächsische Vaterlandsblätter for the 15th of October 1844 made a vigorous attack upon Wilhelm Arnoldi, bishop of Trier since 1842, for having ordered (for the first time since 1810) the exposition of the "holy coat of Trier," alleged to be the seamless robe of Christ, an event which drew countless pilgrims to the cathedral. Ronge, who had formerly been chaplain at Grottkau,

was then a schoolmaster at Laurahütte near the Polish border.
The article made a great sensation, and led to Ronge's excom-
munication by the chapter of Breslau in December 1844. The
ex-priest received a large amount of public sympathy, and a
dissenting congregation was almost immediately formed at
Breslau with a very simple creed, in which the chief articles
were belief in God the Father, creator and ruler of the universe;
1 Beissel (known in the community as "Friedsam ") was their
leader until his death; he published several collections of hymns.
The stone over his grave bears the inscription: "Here rests an out-
growth of the love of God, 'Friedsam,' a Solitary Brother, after-
wards a leader of the Solitary and the Congregation of Grace in and
around Ephrata. Fell asleep July 6, 1768, in the 52nd year of
his spiritual life, but the 72nd year and fourth month of his natural
life. The borough of Ephrata was separated from the township
in 1891. Pop. (1900) of the borough, 2451; of the township, 2390.
The Brother House" and the "Sister House" are still standing
Brandywine, many wounded American soldiers were nursed here by
In 1777, after the battle of
(though in a dilapidated condition).
the Sisters, and about 200 are buried here.

in Jesus Christ the Saviour, who delivers from the bondage of sin |
by his life, doctrine and death; in the operation of the Holy
Ghost; in a holy, universal, Christian church; in forgiveness
of sins and the life everlasting. The Bible was made the sole rule,
and all external authority was barred. Within a few weeks
similar communities were formed at Leipzig, Dresden, Berlin,
Offenbach Worms, Wiesbaden and elsewhere; and at
"council" convened at Leipzig at Easter 1845, twenty-seven
congregations were represented by delegates, of whom only two
or at most three were in clerical orders.

itself, which ceased to exist in 1857. There are now only about
2000 strict German Catholics, all in Saxony. The movement
has been superseded by the Old Catholic (q.v.) organization.
F. Kampe, Das Wesen des Deutschkatholicismus (1860): Findel,
See G. G. Gervinus, Die Mission des Deutschkatholicismus (1846);
Der Deutschkatholicismus in Sachsen (1895); Carl Mirbt, in Herzog-
Hauck's Realencyk. für prot. Theol. iv. 583.

GERMAN EAST AFRICA, a country occupying the east-
central portion of the African continent. The colony extends
at its greatest length north to south from 1° to 11° S., and west
to east from 30° to 40° E. It is bounded E. by the Indian Ocean
(the coast-line extending from 4° 20' to 10° 40' S.), N.E. and N.
by British East Africa and Uganda, W. by Belgian Congo, S.W.
by British Central Africa and S. by Portuguese East Africa.
Area and Boundaries.-On the north the boundary line runs N.W.
from the mouth of the Umba river to Lake Jipe and Mount Kili-

Even before the beginning of the agitation led by Ronge, another movement fundamentally distinct, though in some respects similar, had been originated at Schneidemühl, Posen, under the guidance of Johann Czerski (1813-1893), also a priest, who had come into collision with the church authorities on the then much discussed question of mixed marriages, and also on that of the celibacy of the clergy. The result had been his suspension from office in March 1844; his public withdrawal, along with twenty-four adherents, from the Roman communion in August; his excommunication; and the formation, in October, of a "Christian Catholic" congregation which, while rejecting clerical celibacy, the use of Latin in public worship, and the doctrines of purgatory and transubstantiation, retained the Nicene theology and the doctrine of the seven sacraments. Czerski had been at some of the sittings of the " German Catholic" council of Leipzig; but when a formula somewhat similar to that of Breslau had been adopted, he refused his signature because the divinity of Christ had been ignored, and he and his congregation continued to retain by preference the name of "Christian Catholics," which they had originally assumed. Of the German Catholic congregations which had been represented at Leipzig some manifested a preference for the fuller and more positive creed of Schneidemühl, but a great majority continued to accept the comparatively rationalistic position of the Breslau school. The number of these rapidly increased, and the congregations scattered over Germany numbered nearly 200. External and internal checks, however, soon limited this advance. In Austria, and ultimately also in Bavaria, the use of the name German Catholics was officially prohibited, that of "Dis-manjaro, including both in the protectorate, and thence to Victoria sidents" being substituted, while in Prussia, Baden and Saxony the adherents of the new creed were laid under various disabilities, being suspected both of undermining religion and of encouraging the revolutionary tendencies of the age. Ronge himself was a foremost figure in the troubles of 1848; after the dissolution of the Frankfort parliament he lived for some time in London, returning in 1861 to Germany. He died at Vienna on the 26th of October 1887. In 1859 some of the German Catholics entered into corporate union with the "Free Congregations," an association of free-thinking communities that had since 1844 been gradually withdrawing from the orthodox Protestant Church, when the united body took the title of "The Religious Society of Free Congregations." Before that time many of the congregations which were formed in 1844 and the years immediately following had been dissolved, including that of Schneidemühl