Meanwhile the growing preponderance of the Spanish-Austrian power had long since awakened the jealousy of France. In the struggle on the succession in Mantua, the Italian princes had joined themselves to France from fear of the Spanish dominion; and thus even Pope Urban VIII. was led by political entanglements to unite with France, and so, indirectly, with the German Protestants.13 In alliance with France," Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, and the deliverer of the Protestants, appeared upon German soil, June 24, 1620. The sacking and barbarous treatment of Magdeburg by Tilly, May 10, 1631, brought the hesitating Protestant princes to a decision; Hesse, Brandenberg, and Saxony joined with Sweden. Tilly was defeated at Leipsic, September 7, 1631; Gustavus Adolphus marched through the Rhenish provinces, penetrated into Bavaria, freed the oppressed Protestants, and thus enlarged the hosts of his confederates. And although he fell, as a conqueror in the battle of Lützen, against Wallenstein, November 6, 1632; although the conflict afterward raged for a long time with all the horrors of a religious war, and made a large part of Germany a desert; and although the fortunes of war somefuerunt. Quicquid autem concessum non reperitur, prohibitum censeri debet.-Confessionistae praeter aut contra jus singulari fruuntur permissione et indulgentia ipsis concessa, non sine Catholicorum praejudicio ac damno. Tales autem concessiones strictam interpretationem habent. Qu. 37, p. 168: Religionem catholicam in Imperio tenere, et subditos suos ad eandem compellere, communi jure omnibus concessum est: at vero catholicam religionem mutare, et novam sectam Lutheranam introducere, atque subditos ad eandem compellere, generali lege prohibitum est, iis exceptis, quibus id indulgentia permissum. Qu. 44: The declaration of King Ferdinand in favor of the Protestant subjects of the spiritual electors was surreptitious; first produced at the Diet of Ratisbon, 1576. Cap. xi. qu. 67: The protestation of the Cardinal and Bishop of Augsburg, Otto, against the religious peace had the effect of making it invalid in the bishopric of Augs burg, and the episcopal jurisdiction in this bishopric had not been at all suspended.— The polemics which the Jesuits had been for a long time carrying on against Protestantism and the religious peace (Salig's Gesch. d. Augsb. Conf. i. 767) now became very animated. By order of the Elector the Leipsic theologians wrote: "Nothwendige Vertheidigung des heil. Röm. Reichs Evangelischer Churfürsten u. Stande Augapfels, nemlich der wahren, reinen-Augsp. Confession, u. des auf dieselbe gerichteten hochverponten Religionfrieds," 1628. 4. With this began a long series of quarrelsome writings, in the titles of which this metaphor of the "apple of the eye" was repeated to satiety: "Brill auf den Evangel. Augapfel durch Andr. Fabricium, 1629. 4. Evangelischen Augapfels Brillen-Butzer. Leipzig, 4. Ausbutzer des genandt: Evangelischen BrillenButzers. Dillingen, 1629. 4. Wer hat das Kalb ins Aug geschlagen? Dillingen, 1629. 4. Dillingischer Kälber-Artzt. 1629. 4., u. s. w." Comp. Menzel, vii. 194. 13 Ranke, Fürsten ü. Völker, iii. 528 ff. Menzel, vii. 236.

14 As early as 1629 there were negotiations about it; in 1630 it was regarded as established (Ranke, iii. 553), and Jan. 13, 1631, formally abolished; Häberlin-Senkenberg, xxvi. 252. A. F. Gfrörer's Geschichte Gustav Adolphs, Konigs v. Schweden, u. seiner Zeit. Stuttgart u. Leipzig, 1837. 8.

times wavered, and Saxony separated herself from the confederates by the Peace of Prague, May 30, 1635; yet still the Protestant cause, supported as it was by Sweden, France, and the United Netherlands, attained at last a decided victory over the Imperial and Spanish arms. Negotiations for peace were begun in 1645 in Münster and Osnabrück; the victories of Turenne and Wrangel gave them urgency; and they resulted at last in the Peace of Westphalia,15 October 14, 1648. Protestantism in Germany obtained equal rights with the Catholic Church, and an important increase of power. In the north of Germany many foundations were secularized in favor of Protestant rulers;16 of the Catholic princes, only Bavaria maintained the advantages it had acquired." The Religious Peace was confirmed, and the controversies on particular points brought to a close by more exact statements and additions. In all affairs of the empire both religious parties were to have entirely equal rights.18 The right of refor

15 A. A. (Adam Adami, Benedictine, at last titular Bishop of Hildesheim, † 1663) Arcana pacis Westphalicae. Francof. 1698. 4. (best edition: Adam Adami relatio historica de pacificatione Osnabrugo-Monasteriensi, cura J. G. de Meiern. Lips., 1737. 4.) Joh. Gottfr. v. Meiern (privy councilor in Hanover, † 1745) Acta pacis Westphalicae publica. Hanover u. Göttingen, 1734-36. 6 Theile, fol. Also a Register, by J. L. Walther. Gottingen, 1740. fol.-The two instruments of the peace have been often published: in the Latin original in J. J. Schmaussen's Corpus juris publici S. R. Imp academicum, new edition. Leipz., 1794. 8., p. 741 ss. J. St. Pütter's Geist des Westphäl. Friedens. Gottingen, 1795. 8. R. K. Freih. v. Senkenberg's Darstellung des Osnabrück- u. Münsterischen od. sogen. Westphälischen Friedens. Frankf. a. M., 1804. 8.

16 Sweden received Upper Pomerania and Rügen, a part of Lower Pomerania, Bremen, and Verden. To compensate for their claims to these lands, Brandenburg received the benefices of Magdeburg, Halberstadt, Camin, and Minden; Mecklenburg had those of Schwerin and Ratzeburg; Brunswick the alternativa successio in Osnabrück and the cloisters of Walkenried and Gröningen; Hesse Cassel received the abbey of Hersfeld. 17 Bavaria retained the electoral dignity of the Palatinate, the Upper Palatinate, and the barony of Chalm; and a new (the eighth) electorate was erected for the Palatinate. After the extinction of the Bavarian house this last electorate was to cease, and the Palatinate line succeed to the Bavarian dignity and possessions.

18 After confirming the treaty of Passau and the Augsburg Religious Peace (Instrum. Pacis Osnabr., Art. V. § 1), it goes on: Quae vero de nonnullis in Articulis controversis hac Transactione communi partium placito statuta sunt, ea pro perpetua dictae Pacis declaratione, tam in Judiciis, quam alibi observanda, habebuntur, donec per Dei gratiam de Religione ipsa convenerit, non attenta cujusvis seu Ecclesiastici seu Politici, intra vel extra Imperium, quocunque tempore interposita contradictione vel protestatione, quae omnes inanes et nihil vigore horum declarantur. In reliquis omnibus autem inter utriusque Religionis Electores, Principes, Status omnes et singulos sit aequalitas exacta mutuaque. According to § 51 and 53, the deputations and courts of the empire were to be filled by both parties, with an equal number of members. § 52. In causis Religionis, omnibusque aliis negotiis, ubi Status tanquam unum corpus considerari nequeunt, ut etiam Catholicis et Augustanae Confessionis Statibus in duas partes euntibus, sola ami、 cabilis compositio lites dirimat, non attenta votorum pluralitate.

mation in the states was confirmed in general terms, though limited so far as this-that the rights of each religious party in the domain of the other were to be defined according to the rule of January 1, 1624.19 All these regulations were likewise to hold equally good for the Reformed (Calvinists), who were now for the first time favorably acknowledged.20 On the other hand, the

19 I. P. O., Art. V. § 2. According to § 14, all bona ecclesiastica immediata are to fall to and remain under the religious party which had them in possession January 1, 1624; and accordingly (in § 15) the Reservatum ecclesiasticum was to be in force in future. § 23. Quot Capitulares aut Canonici die I. Jan., anni 1624, uspiam vel Augustanae Confessionis vel Catholici fuerunt, totidem illic ex utraque religione erunt semper, nec decedentibus nisi ejusdem religionis consortes surrogentur.-Exercitium vero religionis in mixtis Episcopatibus ita restituatur et permaneat, uti et quatenus id 1624 palam receptum permissumque fuit. § 25 and 26: also all the mediate church property was to remain with the religious party that had it in possession January 1, 1624. § 30. Quum Statibus immediatis cum jure Territorii et Superioritatis ex communi per totum Imperium hactenus usitata praxi etiam jus reformandi exercitium Religionis competat, ac dudum in Pace Religionis talium Statuum subditis, si a religione Domini Territorii dissentiant, beneficium emigrandi concessum ;-conventum est, hoc idem porro quoque ab utriusque Religionis Statibus observari, nullique statui immediato jus, quod ipsi ratione territorii et superioritatis in negotio Religionis competit, impediri oportere. § 31. Hoc tamen non obstante Statuum Catholicorum Landsassii, Vasalli et Subditi cujuscunque generis, qui sive publicum sive privatum Aug. Conf. exercitium anno 1624 quacunque anni parte-habuerunt, retineant id etiam inposterum una cum annexis, quatenus illa dicto anno exercuerunt, aut exercita fuisse probare poterunt. § 34. Placuit porro, ut illi Catholicorum subditi Augustanae Confessioni addicti, ut et Catholici Augustanae Confessionis Statuum subditi, qui anno 1624 publicum vel etiam privatum Religionis suae exercitium nulla anni parte habuerunt, nec non qui post pacem publicatam deinceps futuro tempore diversam a Territorii Domino Religionem profitebuntur et amplectentur, patienter tolerentur, et conscientia libera domi devotioni suae sine inquisitione aut turbatione privatim vacare, in vicinia vero, ubi et quoties voluerint, publico Religi onis exercitio interesse, vel liberos suos exteris suae Religionis scholis, aut privatis domi praeceptoribus instruendos committere non prohibeantur. § 35. Sive autem Catholici sive Augustanae Confessionis fuerint subditi, nullibi ob Religionem despicatui habeantur, nec a mercatorum, opificum, aut tribuum communione,-multo minus publicis coemiteriis, honoreve sepulturae arceantur. § 36. Quod si vero subditus, qui nec publicum nec privatum suae Religionis exercitium anno 1624 habuit, vel etiam qui post publicatam pacem religionem mutabit, sua sponte emigrare voluerit, aut a Territorii Domino jussus fuerit, liberum ei sit, aut retentis bonis aut alienatis discedere, retenta per ministros administrare, et quoties ratio id postulat, ad res suas inspiciendas-libere et sine literis commeatus adire. § 37. Conventum autem est, ut a Territoriorum Dominis illis subditis, qui neque publicum, neque privatum exercitium religionis suae dicto anno habuerunt,-terminus non minor quinquennio; illis vero, qui post pacem publicatam Religionem mutant, non minor triennio, nisi tempus magis laxum et spatiosum impetrare potuerint, ad emigrandum praefigatur. Accordingly, the right of reformation, on the part of the princes, could be applied (§ 30) only in respect to the religion which had no public worship in 1624 (§ 31). If the prince tolerated it, it must be in accordance with the provisions in § 34, 35; he might also force its adherents to emigrate; so § 36, 37.

20 I. P. O., Art. VII. § 1. All the rights resulting from the present, as well as from the Religious Peace, were to be also conceded-iis qui Reformati vocantur. Quoniam vero controversiae Religionis, quae inter modo dictos Protestantes vertuntur, hactenus non fuerunt compositae, adeoque illi duas partes constituunt, ideo de jure reformandi

Emperor would not allow the peace to be extended to his hereditary lands; only the mediate Silesian principalities had their previous religious rights confirmed to them.21 As a protest on the part of the Pope was of course to be anticipated, it was deprived of all influence beforehand,22 and so had no effect whatever when it actually came.23 Although the Protestant churches had still to

inter utramque ita conventum est, ut si aliquis Princeps vel alius Territorii Dominus vel alicujus Ecclesiae Patronus posthac ad alterius partis sacra transierit, aut Principatum, aut ditionem, ubi alterius partis sacra exercitio publico de praesenti vigent,-nactus fuerit,-ipsi quidem Concionatores aulicos suae Confessionis citra subditorum onus aut praejudicium secum atque in Residentia sua habere liceat. At fas ei non sit, vel publicum Religionis exercitium, leges aut constitutiones ecclesiasticas hactenus ibi receptas immutare, vel templa, scholas, hospitalia, aut eo pertinentes reditus, pensiones, stipendia prioribus adimere, suorumque sacrorum hominibus applicare, vel juris territorialis, Episcopalis, Patronatus aliove quocunque praetextu subditis Ministros alterius Confessionis obtrudere, ullumve aliud impedimentum aut praejudicium directe vel indirecte alterius sacris afferre. Et ut haec conventio eo firmius observetur, liceat hoc mutationis casu ipsis communitatibus praesentare, vel quae praesentandi jus non habent, nominare idoneos Scholarum et Ecclesiarum Ministros, a publico loci Consistorio et Ministerio, si ejusdem cum praesentantibus vel nominantibus sunt religionis, vel hoc deficiente, eo loco, quem ipsae communitates elegerint, examinandos et ordinandos, atque a Principe vel Domino postea sine recusatione confirmandos.

21 I. P. O., Art. V. § 38. Silesii etiam Principes August. Conf. addicti, Duces scil. in Brieg, Liegnitz, Münsterberg et Oels, itemque Civitas Vratislaviensis in libero suorum ante bellum obtentorum jurium et privilegiorum, necnon Aug. Conf. exercitio ex gratia Caesarea et Regia ipsis concesso manutenebuntur. § 39. Quod vero ad Comites, Barones, Nobiles eorumque subditos in reliquis Silesiae Ducatibus, qui immediate ad Cameram Regiam spectant, tum etiam de praesenti in Austria inferiori degentes Comites, Barones et Nobiles attinet, quamvis Caesareae Maj. jus reformandi exercitium Religionis non minus, quam aliis Regibus et Principibus competat; tamen—ad interventionem Regiae Majestatis Sueciae, et in gratiam intercedentium Augustanae Conf. Statuum permittit, ut ejusmodi Comites, Barones et Nobiles, illorumque in praedictis Silesiae Ducatibus subditi ob professionem Aug. Conf. loco aut bonis cedere aut emigrare non teneantur, nec etiam prohibeantur dictae Confessionis exercitium in locis vicinis extra territorium frequentare. § 40. Praeter haec autem-Sacra Caes. Maj. ulterius pollicetur, se illis, qui in his Ducatibus Aug. Conf. addicti sunt, pro hujus Confessionis exercitio tres Ecclesias propriis eorum sumptibus extra civitates Schweiniz, Jauer et Glogavium prope moenia-aedificandas-concessuram. § 41. Et cum de majore Religionis libertate et exercitio in supra dictis et reliquis Caesareae Maj. et Domus Austriacae regnis et provinciis concedendo in praesenti Tractatu varie actum sit, nec tamen ob Caesareanorum Plenipotentiariorum contradictiones convenire potuerit; Regia Maj. Sueciae et Aug. Conf. Ordines facultatem sibi reservant, eo nomine in proximis Comitiis aut alias apud Suam Caes. Maj., pace tamen semper permanente et exclusa omni violentia et hostilitate, ulterius respective amice interveniendi et demisse intercedendi. 22 I. P. O., Art. V. § 1; see above, Note 18.

23 By the bull, Zelo domus Dei, d. 26. Nov., 1648, published 3d Jan., 1651; in Bower's Hist. d. Rom. Pabste, edition of Rambach X., ii. 21. Sane cum intimo doloris sensu accepimus, quod per plures pacis Osnabrugis-necnon alterius pacis Monasterii-initarum articulos gravissima Religioni catholicae-illata fuerunt praejudicia. Etenim pactionibus-inter alia bona ecclesiastica aliaque ab haereticis occupata illis eorumque successoribus in perpetuum addicuntur; haereticis Augustanae, ut vocant, confessionis liberum suae haereseos exercitium in plerisque locis permittitur, et locorum pro aedificandis

encounter much oppression and craft, yet they attained, within certain limits, a legally impregnable position, and adequate means to insure and defend their rights.

§ 13.

ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS IN SWITZERLAND TO 1648.

In the year 1624 the Swiss Reformed Church rejoiced in the concurrence of several events of a favorable character. The principality of Sax joined the Reformation;' Savoy, in its treaty with Berne, was obliged to give pledges that it would not make any religious changes in the districts of Thonon, Ternier, and Gex, which it received back; the evangelicals of Glarne, after many attacks, were also recognized by the Catholic cantons.3 In Switzad hunc effectum templis assignatio promittitur; ipsique cum catholicis ad publica munia et officia, ac ad nonnullos Archiepiscopatus, aliasque dignitates et beneficia ecclesiastica, precumque primariarum Ferdinando in Imperatorem electo a praefata Sede apostolica concessarum participationem admittuntur; Annatae, jura pallii, confirmationes, menses papales, et hujusmodi jura et reservationes in bonis ecclesiasticis dictae Confessionis Augustanae excluduntur; confirmationes electionum, seu postulationum praetensorum Archiepiscoporum, Episcoporum aut Praelatorum ejusdem Confessionis potestati saeculari attribuuntur; plures Archiepiscopatus, Episcopatus, Monasteria,—et alia beneficia et bona ecclesiastica Principibus haereticis eorumque haeredibus, etiam sublata denominatione ecclesiastica, in feudum perpetuum sub dignitatis saecularis titulo conceduntur; contra pacem hujusmodi ullumve ejus articulum nulla jura canonica vel civilia, -juramenta, aut concordata cum Romanis Pontificibus, ullave alia statuta, sive politica, sive ecclesiastica, decreta, dispensationes, absolutiones, aut alias exceptiones allegari, audiri, vel admitti debere disponitur; numerus septem Electorum Imperii olim apostolica auctoritate praefinitus, sine nostro et sedis praefatae beneplacito augetur, et octavus Electoratus in favorem Caroli Ludovici, Comitis Palatini Rheni, haeretici, instituitur; aliaque multa, quae pudet referre, orthodoxae religioni sedique praefatae Romanae, et inferioribus Ecclesiis, caeterisque praemissis summopere praejudicialia et damnosa decernuntur. Et quamvis Ven. Frater, Episcopus Neritonensis, noster et Sedis praefatae -nuncius fuerit palam nostro-nomine protestatus, ejusmodi articulos esse irritos, nullos; ac notissimi juris sit, quamcunque transactionem seu pactionem in rebus ecclesiasticis sine praefatae Sedis auctoritate factam nullam nulliusque roboris et momenti existere: attamen quo efficacius praemissorum indemnitati consultum sit;-praedictos -utriusque pacis articulos, caeteraque in dictis instrumentis contenta-ipso jure nulla, invalida, injusta, damnata-omnino fuisse, esse et in perpetuo fore; neminemque ad illorum, etiamsi juramento vallata sint, observationem teneri,-atque perinde ac si nunquam emanassent, pro non extantibus et non factis perpetuo haberi debere, tenore earundem praesentium decernimus et declaramus. Et nihilominus ad abundantiorem cautelam-articulos praefatos aliaque praemissa-potestatis plenitudine penitus damnamus, reprobamus, cassamus, annullamus, viribusque et effectu vacuamus.

1 Hottinger's Helvet. Kirchengesch., iii. 887.

2 Hottinger, iii. 899.

'Just after it had been suggested to the canton by the Catholics to expel all the Reformed preachers, and to tolerate only Catholic worship; Hottinger, iii. 885.