Thousands fell at the order26 of the Council of Blood, which he established; a far larger number deserted their fatherland, to save it with arms in their hands under the lead of Prince William of Orange. In April, 1572, Briel was captured by the rebel beggars; the northern provinces joined in the revolt-they were all ready for it. Alba, in November, 1573, quit the Netherlands, laden with the curses of the land; but he was so far from having coerced the freedom of the Netherlands, that, by the Treaty of Ghent, November 8, 1576, the southern provinces united with the northern for the expulsion of the Spaniards, and to arrange their ecclesiastical affairs in a righteous order.27

26 Comp. the declarations of Viglius Zuichemus ab Aytta, President of the High Council in Brussels, who had been a zealous Catholic, and always in favor of strict measures against the Reformers, in his Epistolis politicis et historicis ad Joach. Hopperum (Dutch councilor before the person of the King). Leoardiae, 1661. 8., z. B. Ep. 81, dd. Bruxellae, 25. Jun., 1569: veremur, ne dum confiscationibus nimium inhiatur, et perfundendi sanguinis nullus sit finis, labes aliqua avaritiae ac crudelitatis Majestati suae aspergatur. Ep. 89, dd. 23. Oct., 1569: promtior populus ad omnia obsequia foret, si tandem criminalibus fiscalibus processibus finis aliquis imponeretur, et jamdudum gratia promissa non tantopere differretur. Expectamus etiam hic Hispanos Italosque Consiliarios pro criminalium civiliumque judiciorum reformatione: at hic, quotquot fere sumus, non modo inepti inutilesque videmur, sed jura, leges et consuetudines, quibus hactenus viximus, in dubium revocantur. Ep. 138, dd. 8. Jul., 1571: Omnium maxima auctoritas est apud Vargam, cujus judicio stant caduntque res nostrae, adversus quem tantum populi odium est, ut ipso regnante ad quietem reduci res nostras boni omnes desperent, videbitque D. V. ex negotio Trajectensi, qua aequitate sub talibus judicibus res pertractentur.

27 It was hastened by the horrible cruelties of the Spaniards in Antwerp, November 4, 1576; see Thuanus, lxii. 11; Hooft 1, 479. The treaties in Dutch and French (see in Dumont Corps Universel Diplomatique, v. i. 278) were made by the estates of Brabant, Flanders, Artois, Hennegau, Valenciennes, Lille, Douay, Orchies, Namur, Tournay, Utrecht, and Mechlin, on the one side, and by the Prince of Orange, with the estates of Holland and Zeeland, on the other, occasioned par l'ambition et rigoureux Gouvernement des Espagnols, et par leurs injustices et violences,-par où les dits Pays sont tombez dans une grande misère.-Pendant qu'on esperoit quelque soulagement et compassion de la part de Sa Majesté, lesdits Espagnols ont de jour en jour continué d'opprimer et ruiner les pauvres sujets, et ont taché de les reduire dans un éternel esclavage. Accordingly those states pledged freedom and friendship, and Art. 2, d'assister l'un l'autre, -et notamment pour chasser, et tenir hors de ces Pais les Soldats Espagnols, et autres étrangers. Art. 3. After the chasing away of the Spaniards the General States shall be convened, afin de mettre ordre aux affaires du Pais,-touchant le faict de l'exercice de la Religion és Pais de Hollande, Zélande, et Lieux associés. Art. 4. No one shall be allowed to do any thing, contre le repos, et la paix publique, notamment contre la Religion Catholique et Romaine, ou exercice d'icelle, ni d'injurier, ou irriter aucun à cause d'icelle de faict ou de parole, ni aussi le scandaliser par actes semblables, sur peine d'être punis comme perturbateurs du repos public afin de servir d'exemple aux autres. Art. 5.-Tous les Placarts, qui ont été faicts et publiés parcidevant sur le faict d'heresie, comme aussi les Ordonnances criminelles faictes par le Duc d'Alve, la poursuite, et l'execution en sera suspendue, jusques à ce qu'il en sera ordonné autrement par les Etats Generaux.

As Philip was still inflexible in his purpose of exterminating all heresy, the northern provinces, on January 23, 1579, formed the Union of Utrecht, and renounced allegiance to the blood-thirsty King, July 26, 1579.28 Prince Alexander of Parma, Stadtholder since 1578, did indeed succeed, by the Treaty of Arras, May 17, 1579, in reconciling the Walloon provinces with the King,29 insuring their civil freedom; for in these provinces the Catholics had remained predominant, and the Protestants had succumbed. With their help he also invaded the cities of Brabant and Flanders, and annihilated or expelled all the Reformed without pity;30 and he also made a fanatical Catholicism supreme, by means of the Jesuits, whom he introduced in all quarters.31 On the other hand, the northern provinces maintained their freedom under the great William of Orange, and, after he had been murdered by a fanatic (July 10, 1584), under his son Maurice. Spain was compelled to grant to them, in 1609, a truce of twelve years.32 After the war had broken out again, in 1621, in connection with the Thirty Years' War in Germany, Spain also, in 1648, in the Peace of Westphalia, gave them independence.

The United Netherlands insured their spiritual independence by immediately establishing institutions of education. They founded universities in Leyden, 1575;33 Franecker, 1585; Gröningen, 1612; Utrecht, 1636; Harderwyk, in 1648.34

28 In Dumont, v. i. 322.

29 In Dumont, v. i. 350. All political conditions of the Treaty of Ghent were confirmed; on the other hand, this treaty was made-au service de Dieu, à l'entretenement de la Religion Catholique Apostolique et Romaine.

30 Decisive was particularly the capture of Antwerp after a long siege, Aug. 17, 1585. Comp. the treaty of the Prince with Brussels, March 10, 1585, in Dumont, v. i. 444, and with Antwerp, Aug. 17, 1585, ibid., p. 446.

31 They first settled in the Walloon cities of St. Omer and Douay, and thence spread into all the captured cities; Historia Soc. Jesu, P. v. lib. iv. No. 58 (auct. Sacchino): Alexandro et privati ejus consilii viris ea stabat sententia, ut quaeque recipiebatur ex haereticis civitas, continuo fere in eam immitti societatem debere: valere id tum ad pietatem privatam civium, tum ad pacem tranquillitatemque intelligebant.

32 The treaty, in Dumont, v. ii. 99.

33 As a reward for their heroic defense of the city against the Spaniards in 1574, they had the choice between exemption from taxation for some years and the possession of a university, and chose the latter; Hooft, i. 398.

34 H. L. Benthem's Holländ. Kirch- u. Schulen-Staat, ii. 1.

$ 25.

IN SCOTLAND.

The Historie of the Reformation of Religioun within the Realm of Scotland-together with the Life of Johne Knoxe the Author († 1572). Edinburgh, 1732.-The History of the Establishement of the Reformation of Religion in Scotland, by Gilb. Stuart (Doctor of Laws and Fellow of the Antiq. Society in Edinburgh). Lond., 1780. (German version, G. Stuart's Gesch. d. Ref. in Schottland. Altenburg, 1786.8.) History of the Reformation in Scotland, by Ge. Cook, 3 vols., Edinb., 1811. Stäudlin's Kirchengeschichte von Grosbritannien (2 Th., Göttingen, 1819), i. 409.

[Other histories in German are: Karl Gustav von Rudloff, Gesch. d. Ref. in S., 2 Thle., Berl., 1849. A. Gamberg, Die Schottische Nationalkirche, Hamb., 1827. K. H. Sack, Die Evang. Kirche Schottlands, Heidelb., 1844. J. Köstlin, in the Deutsche Zeitschrift, 1851, Nos. 17-25; ibid., Die Schottische Kirche, ihr inneres Leben, u, ihr Verhältniss zum Staate, u. s. w., 1853.-Merle D'Aubigné, Trois Siècles de Lutte, 8vo, 1850.]

[Wodrow Society's Publications, 26 vols. 8vo, comprising Calderwood's Hist., 4 vols.; Knox, 4; Blair; Melville, 2; Scot's Narration; Row's Kirk of S.; Wodrow's Corresp., etc. Spottiswoode's Society's Publications, 12 vols.: Spottiswoode's History, by Russel, 3 vols.; Keith's Hist., by Lawson, 3 vols.; Miscellany, 2; Sage's Works, 3 vols.; Patrick Forbes, 1 vol.; John Skinner, Eccl. Hist., 2 vols. 8vo, 1788.] [W. H. Hetherington, Hist. of the Church of S., 3d ed., 2 vols. 1843. Stephen's, Th., History, 4 vols., Lond., 1844. A. Stevenson, Hist. of the Church and State of S. to 1645, Edinb., 8vo, 1845. M. Russell, History (vols. ix. x. of Theol. Lib., Rivington's). E. C. Harrington, Brief Notes, 1555-1842, Exeter, 1843. H. Leighton, Church of United Kingdom, vol. i., Scotland, Edinburgh, 1845. Spalding's Hist. of Troubles under Charles I., 8vo, 1829. H. Caswell, Scotland and Scotch Church, 1853. Th. M'Crie, Sketches in S. History, 2 vols. 12mo; Life of Melville, 2 vols. 8vo, 1824. J. Marshall, Scotch Eccl. and Civil Affairs, 1851. John Cunningham, Church History of Scotland to the Present Time, 2 vols. 8vo, 1859.]

[Principal Robert Baillie, Letters and Journals, 1637-62, Edinb., 1775, 2 vols. 8vo; new ed. by D. Laing, 3 vols. 8vo, Edinb., 1841-42. Sir James Balfour's Annales, 4 vols. 8vo, 1640-52; Edinb., 1824. David Camerarius, De Scotorum Fortitud. . . . de Ortu et progr. Haeresis, 4to, Paris, 1631. Geo. Conaeus, De duplici Statu religionis apud Scotos, Rom., 4to, 1628. Buchanan, Rerum Scoticarum Historia. W. Robertson, Hist. Scotland. J. Scott's Lives of Prot. Reformers in Scotland, Edinb., 1810. (D. Defoe) Mem. of Church of S., 8vo, 1717. Lesley's Hist., 1436 to 1561, by Bannatyne Club, 4to, 1830. C. J. Lyon, Hist. of St. Andrews, 2 vols. 8vo, Edinb., 1843. Molinaeus, Rerum nuper in Scotiam gestarum Hist., Dantisci, 1641. James Stirling, Naphthali, or Wrestlings of the Church of Scotland until 1667, 12mo.]

James V. of Scotland favored the clergy, so as to counteract the predominance of the nobility. In this conflict there were many martyrs to the Reformation, which, with Luther's writings, had been early introduced into the country. The first of these victims was [March 1, 1527-28] Patrick Hamilton.1 Yet still the number of its adherents increased, especially among the nobles. After the death of James V., in 1542, the Reformed party at first 1 Stuart's Gesch. d. Ref. in Schott., s. 7. [Lorimer's Life of Hamilton, 1856.]

2

got the upper hand, made James Hamilton, Earl of Arran, Lord Protector, and formed an alliance with England. But the Catholic party, led by the widowed Queen, a sister of the Guises, and David Beautoun (Beton), Archbishop of St. Andrews, soon brought the weak regent over to their side, 1543, and persecution began afresh. When, however, the Queen mother took up arms against the regent, she fell out with his brother, John Hamilton, Archbishop of St. Andrews, and with the clergy, and was forced to make use of the Reformed party as a counterweight. Thus, just at this juncture, the Reformers were able to take a more decided stand, to advance more firmly, and to develop their ecclesiastical affairs more definitely; and they were led to do this by the influence of John Knox, who in 1555 had returned to his fatherland from Geneva and the most intimate intercourse with John Calvin.3 At the marriage of the young Queen Mary with Francis, heir to the French throne, a plan was formed, first to Catholicize Scotland with the help of France, and then to enforce the claims of Mary upon the English throne. This plan was made known. in Scotland by Knox. Thereupon the Reformed nobility formed a defensive league-the Congregation of Christ. At last, in 1559,

* The Life of John Knox, containing Illustrations of the History of the Reformation in Scotland, by Th. M'Crie, Edinb., 3d ed., 2 vols. 8vo, 1814 (1839). In German, omitting the documents: Leben des Schottischen Reformators Joh. Knox mit einem Abrisse der Schottischen Reformationsgeschichte von Dr. Th. M‘Crie, in einem kürzeren Auszuge übersetzt, herausgeg. von Dr. G. J. Planck. Göttingen, 1817. 8. Comp. s. 224. [David Laing, Life and Writings of John Knox, 2 vols. 8vo, Edinb., 1847.-Two Reformers had been burned in 1534; in 1539, five in Edinburgh and two in Glasgow. Geo. Buchanan, in 1539, was exiled. Several Scottish noblemen, in 1542, were carried as prisoners to England, where they were favorably impressed for the Reformation. In 1545, George Wishart was burned by order of Cardinal Beautoun; and the cardinal was murdered the same year.]

3 M'Crie-Planck, s. 229.

[This covenant, as given in Stevenson's History, p. 47, reads: "We perceaving how Sathan in his memberis, the antichristis of our tyme, crueillie doth rage, seiking to dounthring and distroy the evangill of Christ, and his congregatioun, aucht, according to our boundin dewtie, to stryve in our Maisteris caus, evin unto the deithe, being certane of the victorie in him; the quhilk our dewtie being weill considderit, we do promeis befoir the Majestie of God and his congregatioun, that we, be his graice, sall with all diligence continuallie apply our haill power, substance, and our very lyves, to mainteine, set fordward, and establish the most blissit word of God, and his congregatioun: and sall labour at our possibilitie to have faythfull ministeris, puirlie and trewlie to minister Christis evangill and sacramentis to his pepill. We sall maintein thame, nurische thame, and defend thame, the haill congregatioun of Christ, and every member thairof, at our haill poweris and wairing of our lyves, against Sathan and all wicked power that dois intend tirannie or trubil against the foirsaid congregatioun. Unto the quhilk holie word and congregatioun, we do joyn us: and also dois renunce and forsaik the congregatioun of Sathan, with all the superstitionis, abbominatiounis, and idolatry

measures began to be enforced against the Reformation, and French troops were to carry them into effect. Then the rage of the people broke forth in a general destruction of churches and cloisters; and the Reformers, supported by England, forced a recognition of their rights in the Treaty of Edinburgh, 1560. The strict Calvinism preached by Knox became the religion of the state; the Parliament, July 10, 1560, forbade the Catholic worship," and sanctioned an entirely Calvinistic Confession of Faith (Confessio Scotica). In the same sense the church government was immediately set in order in the Book of Discipline."

8

By the death of Francis I., 1560, the union of France with Scotland came so speedily to an end that it could not imperil the new order of things. Mary Stuart returned to Scotland in Aug., 1561, and was obliged to tolerate, though she did not formally confirm, the Reformation. She herself remained a zealous Catholic, and in 1565 secretly joined the League of Bayonne. As the Catholic clergy in Scotland, though deposed from their offices, still held their property and had their political rights, and as many of the Reformed clergy began to show signs of weakness, being dazzled by the brilliancy of the court, a reaction seemed not improbable. On the other hand, Knox, now a preacher in Edinburgh, supported by the people, guarded the interests of his party with keenness and power, fought against the plans of their foes and the timidity of his own party with fearless vigor, and made himself

thairof. And mairover, sall declair our selfis manifestlie enemies thairto. Be this our faythful promeis befoir God, testified to his congregatioun, be our subscription at thir presens. At Edinburghe the 3d day of December 1557 yeirs. God caillit to witness."] Stuart, s. 133. M'Crie-Planck, s. 318.

The assent of Francis and Mary, dated Edinburgh, July 6, 1550; see in Stuart, Appendix, s. 53. It was confirmed by the treaty of peace (in Dumont, v. i. 65) made the same day between those princes and Elizabeth.

7 Stuart, Anh., S. 74.

8 M'Crie-Planck, s. 381. The Confession of Faith, originally drawn up in the Scottish dialect, see, in a Latin version, in Augusti Corpus Librorum Symbol. qui in Eccl. Reform. Auctoritatem publicam obtinuerunt, p. 143; in Niemeyer Collectio Confessionum in Ecclesiis Reformatis publicatarum, p. 340.

First Book of Discipline, see M'Crie-Planck, s. 391. The highest church court was the General Assembly; superintendents were placed over particular districts. [The Book of Policy, or First Book of Discipline, was not ratified in form by the civil authorities. Ane Schort Somme of the First Buik of Discipline was published at the same time. The Second Buik of Discipline, or Heidis and Conclusiones of the Policie of the Kirk, was agreed upon by the General Assembly in 1578; inserted in the Registers of the Assembly, 1681; and sworn to in the National Covenant, and ratified by the Assembly in 1638, and at divers other times.]