the introduction of Arminianism, in the shape of Latitudinarianism, into the Episcopal Church." He also tried to bring about a complete union of the Scottish with the English Episcopal Church, by restoring the episcopacy in Scotland, 1610,12 and by the Articles of Perth, 1618.13 Such arbitrary measures made James detested; his want of force made him despised; and thus he left the kingdom to his son, Charles I., 1625, in a critical state of fermentation.14 Charles conceived that he must be true to the principles of his father, and paid so little respect to the Parliament, which endeavored to limit his arbitrary rule, that after 1629 he no longer convened it. Discontent increased, and became threatening. The Episcopal Church, by preaching passive obedience, 15 Ep. 1. c.), Pontificios omnes e carcere liberari, qui, quod juramentum fidelitatis Regi praestare recusarant, magno numero per totam Angliam detinebantur captivi; Ministris praeterea omnibus interdixit, ne ulla inter Pontificios et Reformatos controversa capita in publicis concionibus disputarent: solis enim Episcopis, Decanis et Doctoribus ea in umbone attingere, si opus sit, fas esse voluit. Particularly, 1622, he forbade preaching upon the rights of the King, and upon Predestination (Conc. M. Br., iv. 465).

"Although the name Latitudinarianism first came into vogue about 1660, yet the tendency already existed. At the head stood William Laud, then Bishop of Bath and Wells, who had great influence with the King; see Wood's Hist. et Antiq. Univ. Oxon., i. 329. Besides him was John Hales, teacher in Eton (died 1656), who had been a commissioner at the Synod of Dort, and was there gained over to Arminianism by Episcopius (see Moshemius in Vita Jo. Halesii vor dess. Hist. Conc. Dordr., p. 149); wholly latitudinarian in his book, De Schismate, 1636 (1. c., p. 159). So, too, his friend, John Chillingworth, Chancellor of the Church of Salisbury, † 1644, in his work, the Religion of Protestants a safe Way to Salvation, 1637.

12 Rudloff's Gesch. d. Reform. in Schottland (2 Th., Berlin, 1847-49), i. 266. The first three Scottish bishops had to be consecrated in England; James commanded some English bishops, Conc. M. Brit., iv. 443, eos in Episcopos juxta ritum et formam consecrationis in Ecclesia nostra Anglicana receptam et usitatam ordinare, auctorizare, et consecrare. Yet still the General Assembly remained the highest ecclesiastical authority. [James began to press episcopacy upon Scotland, in 1606, by an ecclesiastical commission; in 1601 the bishops were made perpetual moderators. The three consecrated in England were Spottiswoode, Lamb, and Hamilton. The Articles of Perth, 1618, forced the episcopal rites upon a reluctant people. Comp. John Spottiswoode's Hist. (Spott. Society); John Skinner's Hist., 1788, and Annals, 1778-1816; H. Caswall, Scotch Church, 1853; Lawson's Epis. in Scotland, 1842.]

19 1. The Lord's Supper was received kneeling. 2. It might be given to the sick at their houses. Private baptisms allowed. 4. Children might be confirmed at eight years of age. 5. Certain festivals to be restored. Rudloff, i. 273.

14 Histoire de la Révolution d'Angleterre, par M. Guizot. Partie i., in 2 Tomes. Paris, 1826 and 1827. 8. (1625 to 1649). German, 2 Bde., Jena, 1844. Collection des Mémoires relatifs à la Révolution d'Angleterre, par M. Guizot, 2 vols. Paris, 1823 ss. 8.

15 Thus Dr. Sibthorp preached, that when a King commands what the subjects can not do, because it is against God's commands, or in its nature impossible, they must yet undergo the punishment of their disobedience, and submit in passive obedience. Dr. Manwaring preached, in presence of the King, that the King is not under obligation to regard the laws of the kingdom about the rights and privileges of the subject. Every royal command, e. g., about taxes or loans, lays the consciences of the subjects under

could not allay it, especially as the Church under the lead of William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury since 1633, was more and more secularized and inclined to Catholicism.16 The ecclesiastical regulations of the King in Scotland" decided his unhappy fate. He tried to effect a complete union of the Scotch with the English Church; in opposition to this was formed, in 1638, the Solemn League and Covenant, a league of the Scotch people for Presbyterianism.18 The King vainly sought by partial concessions to allay the storm. In England, too, sprung up disturbances, which were only heightened by the slavish doctrines of the Episcopal Church.19 The Scotch invaded the north of England. The English Parliament, convened in this extremity, soon showed as slight respect for the King as he had shown for them, and began a reform in State and Church. The King wavered at first between concession and resistance. In 1642 open war broke out between him and his Parliament. Scotland joined the latter in 1643, and Parliament accepted the Covenant, and introduced the Presbyterian church constitution in place of the now hated Episcopal Church.20 The contest with civil and ecclesiastical tyran

obligation with the penalty of eternal damnation. Consent of Parliament is not necessary for laying or raising taxes, etc. Raumer, iv. 308, 324.

16 Restoration of pictures, crosses, altars, and the like; Neal, ii. 178, 212. Many parish priests became justices of the peace; Juxon, Bishop of London, became Lord Chancellor (see T. May, Hist. Long Parl.; in Guizot's Coll. des Mémoires, i. 55). At the same time the bishops, while attributing to the King an unconditional authority in the State, endeavored to find a basis in the Church, ex jure divino, for a power independent even of the King. See Guizot, Hist. i., i. 88 ss. 96. Cf. Can. 6 of the Synod of 1649, below, Note 19.

17 Book of Canons, 1635 (v. Rudloff, i. 327). The introduction into Edinburgh, in July, 1637, of the new Liturgy, corresponding with the English, gave occasion to the first disturbances; ibid., s. 333. [Comp. Hetherington and Cunningham; Stevenson's History,

Book ii., chap. i.]

19 V. Rudloff, i. 348. Given in K. H. Sack's Kirche von Schottland (2 Th., Heidelberg, 1844-45), ii. 1. [Stevenson, chap. ii.]

19 See the decrees of the Synod, 1640, in Conc. M. Brit., iv. 543. Particularly Canon I., on the royal power, where is ascribed to kings an unconditional right as to the property of their subjects; and Canon VI., by which was to be imposed upon all the clergy an oath to maintain the doctrine and constitution of the Church: here, among other things, it reads: "Nor will I ever give my consent to alter the government of this Church by archbishops, bishops, deans, and archdeacons, etc., as it stands now established, and as by right it ought to stand." This is the so-called Et caetera Oath. Comp. Jochmann's Betrachtungen über den Protestantismus, s. 248, 265.

20 The Parliament, July 1, 1643, summoned an assembly of divines at Westminster, consisting of laymen and clergy, to consult in respect to ecclesiastical changes; see Benthem's Engeländ. Kirch- u. Schulenstaat, s. 536. Die Westminstersynode, 1643–49, by V. Rudloff, in Niedner's Zeitschrift, 1850, ii. 238. In October, 1643, pictures, altars, organs, etc., were ordered to be removed from the churches. January 4, 1645, a Direct

ny21 had, however, with the love of freedom, also evoked fanaticism; and soon, in opposition to the intolerant Presbyterianism,22 there sprung up all sorts of sects23 and private opinions. Many persons, made distrustful of all positive Christianity by this strife of sects, would have only a religion of reason.24 The Independents grew most rapidly, supported by the parliamentary army 25 and its leader, Oliver Cromwell. Charles could not withstand the fanatical host of the Independents; he was forced, in 1646, to take refuge with the Scottish army, and was, in 1647, delivered up to the English Parliament.26 The Presbyterianism that here

ory, like the Scotch, was substituted for the Liturgy. Afterward the assembly was occupied with drawing up a Confession and two Catechisms. The Confession (Articles of Religion, afterward usually called Confessio Westmonasteriensis, ed. Dr. H. A. Niemeyer, in Collectionis Confessionum in Ecclesiis Reformatis publicatarum Appendice, Lips., 1840, 8., p. 1) was accepted by the English Parliament, June 20, 1648, after striking out, for the security of the civil authorities, Chap. 20, § 4, on Procedures against Errorists and Schismatics; a part of Chap. 24, on Marriage and Divorce; Chap. 30, on Ecclesiastical Penalties; and Chap. 31, on Synods and Councils. Thereupon the Kirk of Scotland adopted the whole Confession. The Catechisms-the Larger for the instruction of older persons, and the Shorter for children (both in Niemeyer, 1. c., p. 47)—were sanctioned, Sept. 15, 1648; see Neal, iii., chap. 8. [Hetherington's History of the Westminster Assembly, 1843. Baillie's Letters, etc. The original Minutes of the Assembly were discovered, 1859, in Dr. Williams's library, Red Cross Street, London. From these it appears that Dr. Anthony Tuckney drew up the Shorter Catechism.]

21 William Laud, executed January 10, 1645; Raumer, v. 142. August, 1646, all the property of the Episcopal Church was sequestrated, and used to defray the costs of the war and pay the debts. Many churches were thus left without clergy; Raumer, v. 244. [Laud's Works, 4 vols. 8vo, 1848 sq. Conference with Fisher, the Jesuit, fol., 1631.]

22 Guizot's Hist., i. ii. 1.

23 Levelers, who rejected all external authority and order, even that of the Bible, in religious matters, merely obeying the Spirit, and who desired freedom and equality in all external matters. The Seekers were those who doubted all the truths of Christianity, and were seeking after the right doctrine. Cf. Anonymi epistola (1654) De Nova Secta Quaerentium, vulgo Seekers, in Anglia exorta (Pentecost-programme at Göttingen, 1814, by Stäudlin). The Erastians adopted the principles of Thomas Erastus, professor of medicine in Basle, † 1583, as laid down in his work: Explicatio gravissimae quaestionis, utrum excommunicatio mandato nitatur divino, an excogitata sit ab hominibus? They rejected all church authority. [Comp. J. R. Prettyman, The Church of England and Erastianism since the Reform., 1854; Vierordt, Gesch. der Kirche in Baden, 1847. His proper name was Liebler, or Lieber; his treatise was a posthumous publication.] The Anabaptists, called Baptists in England, had numerous adherents; they began to grow about 1608 [1646, Conf. of Seven Baptist Churches of London. Orchard, Hist. For. Baptists, 1855. Jos. Ivimey, Hist. Eng. Baptists]; Staudlin's u. Tzschirner's Archiv f. Kirchengesch., ii. 582.-On the Ranters, Mugletonians, etc., see Benthem's Engel. Kirch- und Schulenstaat, s. 549.

24 Rationalists, Naturalists. G. V. Lechler's Geschichte des Englischen Deismus. Stuttgart u. Tübingen, 1841, s. 61. [Leland's Deist Writers, 2 vols., 1798.]

25 V. Rudloff, ii. 95.

26 Raumer, v. 175. Guizot's Hist., i. ii. 196. V. Rudloff, ii. 108.

prevailed was soon forced to succumb to the Independent army.27 The Parliament was at length brought to terms by force, in December, 1648;28 and Charles I., in accordance with sentence pronounced [by a tribunal created for the occasion], was executed, January 30, 1649.29 In the new Commonwealth freedom of conscience was given to all excepting Catholics and Episcopalians..

FOURTH CHAPTER.

$ 30.

HISTORY OF THE MINOR RELIGIOUS PARTIES OF THE REFORMATION PERIOD.

By the Reformation the Scriptures were laid open, the authority of the Church was broken, and thought became free. In the midst of this powerful stimulus of men's minds it was inevitable that many opinions and parties should be formed, each of which believed that it alone could produce a genuine reformation, unvailing the full truth, and establishing in the world the true morality. Although the Reformation, where it was a living power, had a most marked influence in improving the moral condition,' yet there were also many persons connected with it by external relationship alone; and there were those, too, who misunderstood and abused the new-found freedom. And this furnished occasion for

2

29 Raumer, v. 268. Guizot, i. ii. 384. V. Rudloff, ii. 127. [T. May, Hist. Long Parliament, Lond., 1647. M. Noble's Lives of English Regicides, Lond., 1798. Carlyle's Cromwell. Clarendon's Hist. of Rebellion. Carwithen's History, ii.]

By the example of a moral clergy, and by promoting the instruction of youth: comp. the testimonies of contemporaneous chroniclers of Constance, in Schreiber's Taschenbuch für Geschichte u. Alterthum in Süddeutschland. Freiburg im Breisgau, 1841, s. 73. The most striking example was given in Geneva; see Div. I., § 10, Note 39. 2 Erasmus, in his Spongia adv. Huttenicas Adspergines (Opp., ed. Lugd., x.), 1523: Sunt quidam indocti, nullius judicii, vitae impurae, obtrectatores, pervicaces, intractabiles, sic addicti Luthero, ut nec sciant, nec servent quod Lutherus docet. Tantum Evangelium habent in ore, negligunt preces et sacra, vescuntur quibus libet, et maledicunt Romano Pontifici: sic Lutherani sunt. He often repeats this opinion in still severer terms after his controversy with Luther, especially in his Epistola contra quosdam, qui se falso jactant Evangelicos, 1529 (Opp., T. x.). But Luther also and his friends chime in with these complaints; e. g., Hauspostille (Walchsche Ausg., xiii. 19): "Der Teufel fähret nun mit Haufen unter die Leute, dass sie unter dem hellen

some to assert that the Reformation had deviated too widely from the old Church,3 while to others it seemed to have stopped halfway. And so the former tried to discover the truth in the via media between the contending parties; while the latter thought that they must go beyond the Reformers. The peculiarities of the latter are found, in part, in a strictly literal interpretation of the Holy Scriptures; in part in a rational criticism of the Church doctrine; and partly in a wild, fantastic speculation. In the first doctrinal systems of this kind these different elements were often mingled in strange confusion. Their contemporaries, in view of Lichte des Evangelii sind geiziger, listiger, vortheilischer, unbarmherziger, unzüchtiger, frecher und ärger, denn unter dem Papstthum." Comp. Hans Sachsen's Gespräch eines evangelischen Christen mit einem Lutherischen, worin der ärgerliche Wandel etlicher, die sich Lutherisch nennen, angezeigt und brüderlich gestraft wird. 1524 (see the extracts of Veesenmeyer in Vater's Kirchenhist., Archive für 1826, s. 263). Eberlin von Günzburg's (see Div. I., § 1, Note 103) Works: Vom Misbrauch christlicher Freiheit, 1552. Wie sich ein Diener Gottes Worts in all seinem Thun halten soll, 1525. Eine getreue Warnung an die Christen in der Burgauischen Mark, sich auch fürohin zu hüten vor Aufruhr und vor falschen Predigern, 1526 (see the extracts in the Altdorfisches Literar. Museum, i. 374, 403, 417). Many passages of this kind are collected in Arnold's Kirchen- u. Ketzerhistorie, Th. ii., B. xvi., cap. 13.

3 Thus Erasmus in respect to ecclesiastical order, while he secretly allowed to the initiated (esoteric) all freedom in doctrine. This view was at the basis of all his proposals for union; see Div. I., § 1, Notes 67 and 93; § 3, Note 18. Others, on the other hand, believed that the doctrine of salvation by faith alone promoted immorality. So George Wizel, 1525 to 1531 Lutheran pastor in Niemeck, and who then went back to the Catholic Church, and, though married, was a Catholic priest in Eisleben, 1533–38; and then lived in Fulda and Mayence, dying in 1571. His idea was to restore the old Apostolic Church, as intermediate between the old and new Church. His chief work was written at the suggestion of the Emperor Ferdinand I.: Via Regia s. de Controversis Religionis Capitibus Conciliandis Sententia, 1564. Comp. on him Strobel's Beitrage, Bd. ii., st. 1 u. 2. Rienacker in Vater's kirchenhist. Archiv, 1825, s. 312; 1826, s. 17. A. Neander, Comm. de G. Vicelio, Berol., 1839. 4. Neander's das Eine u. Mannichfaltige des christl. Lebens, Berlin, 1840, s. 167. Holzhausen in Niedner's Zeitschr., 1849, s. 382. A similar position was taken by Theobald Thamer, 1543-49, Professor of Theology in Marburg, but brought back to the Catholic Church by his repugnance to the doctrine of justification by faith alone; he lived afterward in Minden and Mayence, and was at last Professor of Theology in Freiburg, in Breisgau; see Salig's Gesch. d. Augsb. Confession, iii. 199. Bullinger's Lebensgesch. v. Hess, ii. 60. Th. Thamer, der Repräsentant und Vorgänger moderner Geistesrichtung, von Dr. A. Neander. Berlin, 1842. 8. Here, too, belongs Ruprecht von Mosheim, who was, however, somewhat crack-brained, and had been clerk of the cathedral in Passau, † 1543; Comp. Strobel's Miscellaneen, v. 1. So, too, most of the Catholic theologians who took part in the religious colloquy in Ratisbon (Div. I., § 7, Note 40), and in the Augsburg Interim (§ 9). Besides these, there was George Cassander, who taught in Brügge and Ghent, and then lived at the court of William of Cleves, and at last died in Cologne, 1566; see his writings: De Officio pii ac publicae tranquillitatis vere amantis viri in hoc Religionis Dissidio, 1561. De Articulis Religionis inter Catholicos et Protestantes ontroversis ad Impp. Ferdin. I. et Maxim. II. 1564. Comp. Conring's collection of his irenical writings: G. Wicelii Via Regia, etc. Helmstadii, 1650, and Cassandri et Wicelii, de sacris nostri temporis Controversiis, libb. ii. 1659.