eral points, but who was not regarded by the Reformed Church of that period as in sympathy with it.

§ 49.

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE.

One of the chief blessings of the Reformation was found in the fact, that the increased religious knowledge was spread abroad and confirmed by means of sermons, catechetical exercises, and the care of souls; and that a class of clergy was trained adapted to this work. Thus, in consequence of Luther's urgent exhortations,' schools were founded in all the cities attached to the Reformation; in the smaller towns there were at least schools for popular instruction, in the larger towns, higher institutions for education.3 In Saxony and Würtembergs cloisters were appropriated to this object. New universities and academies were also established." dargestellt v. H. Luden, Berlin, 1806. [A new edition, with translation, of Grotius on the Truth of the Christian Religion, by John Clarke, D.D., Lond., 1860.] [Comp., on this chapter, A. Tholuck, Das akadem. Leben des 16ten Jahrh., 2 Bde., 1854-55.]

1 An die Rathsherrn aller Städte Deutsches Landes, dass sie christl. Schulen aufrichten und halten sollen. M. Luther, Wittenberg, 1524. 4. (Walch, x. 532), translated into Latin by Vinc. Opsopaus: De constituendis scholis M. Lutheri liber, donatus latinitati. Praecedit Ph. Melanchth. praefatio, Hagenoae, 1524 (the Preface is given in C. R., i. 666). Der 127te Psalm, ausgelegt an die Christen zu Rigen, in Liefland. M. Luther, Wittenberg, 1524 (de Wette, ii. 595), urged especially the erection of schools and the regular payment of the clergy.

The general plan of instruction was laid down in the Instruction to the Visitors, 1528 (Richter's Kirchenordnung, i. 100). Besides religious instruction, reading, writing, and singing, the children were to be taught only in Latin, not German, Greek, or Hebrew (without doubt because then they could obtain a strict knowledge of grammar only through the Latin); and for this object they were divided into three houses (classes), instructed by the schoolmaster and his two assistants. J. Wigger's Kirchengeschichte Meklenburgs, s. 140.

3 Thus in the school in Nuremberg, which Melancthon aided in founding, dedicated 23d May, 1526 (the Oration in C. R., xi. 106), and where John Camerarius as rector, Eoban Hess, and other able men were appointed. Comp. J. D. Schulze, Literaturgeschichte der sämmtl. Schulen im teutschen Reiche, Weissenfels u. Leipz., 1804. Wachler's Gesch. d. Literatur, 2te Umarbeitung, iii. 33.

The Prince's schools, founded by Maurice, Schulpforta and Meissen, 1543, and Grimma, 1550.

Theological stipendium in the Augustine cloister in Tübingen, from 1548. By the cloister-edict, 1556, schools were established in fifteen cloisters, which, however, had been reduced to five at the close of the 15th century; see Joh. Brenz, by Hartmann and Jäger, ii. 299.

• German Universities: Marburg, 1527; Strasburg, 1538; Königsberg, in Preussen, 1544; Jena, 1557; Helmstädt, 1576; Altorf, 1575; Giessen, 1607; Rinteln, 1619. In Switzerland: in Zürich, Collegium Carolinum, 1521; in Lausanne, Theol. Acad., 1537;

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All these institutions had theological and religious education chiefly in view; the training of the clergy was their most important object. Some of these schools' even attained a great reputation, and contributed in no slight degree to recommend the Reformation. In country places it was for some time the custom for the pastors alone to instruct the youth in the Catechism. The cloisters were, however, soon called to give aid, and were also obliged to exercise the children in singing the hymns of the church. The ecclesiastical ordinance of Electoral Saxony, in 1580, first enjoined the cloisters to open schools for general instruction.10

8

in Geneva Univ., 1558. In Holland, Universities in Leyden, 1575; Franecker, 1585; Harderwyk, 1600; Groningen, 1614; Utrecht, 1636. In France, particularly the Academies in Montauban, Sedan (1562), and Saumur (1601). [The French Protestants established (1578-1685) one or more colleges in every province of the kingdom, excepting Provence, thirty-two in all, with a course of instruction of seven years; and also at least one parochial school for every church. Comp. Nicolas, in the Bulletin de la Société de l'Hist. du Protest. Franç., 1856, pp. 497-511, 582-595. On the Academy of Geneva, see Cellerier, in the same work, p. 13 sq., 200 sq., 253 sq. See also Bussiere, Protest. in Strasb., etc., 1859.]

7 Thus the school founded in the Dominican cloister of Strasburg by its leading teacher, Joh. Sturm (1537-1583), deposed as Calvinist, and died 1589. [Comp. Chs. Schmidt, La Vie et les travaux de Jean Sturm, 1855.] (Th. Vömel in Schwarz Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der Pädagogik, Leipzig, 1833, s. 103.) One in Goldberg, in Silesia, by Valentin Friedland Trotzendorf (1531-1556. G. Pinzger's Val. Friedl. Trotzendorf, Hirschberg, 1825). One in Ilfeld, by the Abbot Mich. Neander (1550-1595. W. Havemann's Mittheilungen aus dem Leben von M. Neander, Göttingen, 1841).

After Luther's suggestions, in his Deutsche Messe, 1526 (Richter's Kirchenordnung, i. 37): "This instruction must now be given, because there is not yet any special congregation, it may be from the pulpit, at particular times or daily, as the need is; and at home children and servants must be taught in private morning and evening, if they are to become Christians. Not only must they learn the word by heart, as before, but they must be asked verse by verse, and must answer what each means, and how they understand it." Ph. H. Schuler's Gesch. d. katechet. Religionsunterrichts unter d. Protestanten; Halle, 1802, s..49.

In the Saxon Church Order, 1533, the only injunction upon the sacristans in this respect is about having singing, especially in winter (Richter's Kirchenordnung, i. 228): "Sie sollen die Jugend zuweilen, sonderlich im Winter, auch die andern Leute die christliche Gesänge lehren, und dieselben in der Kirchen zur Messe und vor und nach den Predigten treulich und ordentlich helfen singen." On the other hand, the village sextons in Lübeck, 1531 (i. 150), Pomerania, 1535 (i. 249), and Meissen, 1540 (i. 321), are enjoined to aid the pastor in the Catechism; and the Saxon General Articles of 1557 (ii. 186) enjoin [that they teach the Catechism and singing Sunday afternoons, and on some week-day, and examine the children in the Catechism; and this in all the villages]: "Die Dorfküster sollen verpflichtet seyn, alle Sonntage nach Mittag, und in der Wochen auch auf einen gewissen Tag die Kinder den Katechismum, und christliche Deutsche Gesänge mit Fleiss und deutlich zu lehren, und nachmals in den vorgesprochenen oder vorgelesenen Artikeln des Katechismi wiederum zu vorhōren und zu examiniren, und do eins oder mehr Filial zu der Pfarr gehöreten, soll er mit solchem Lehren, mit Rath seines Pastors, dermassen abwechseln, dass die Jugend in allen Dörfern nach Nothdurft unterwiesen, und ja nicht versäumet werde."

10 The Reformatio Ecclesiarum Hassiae, 1526, published by the Synod of Homberg,

Thus the Protestant churches now possessed great spiritual treasures in their German version of the Bible, in their Catechisms, and in their church songs; while in preaching11 and in the schools they had institutions which laid these treasures open to all. And yet even Luther found cause to complain of the increase of license.12 This was the result in part of the transition from church coercion to church freedom; in part of a misapprehension of the doctrine of justification by faith; in part of the bitter polemics in which this new doctrine about faith was proclaimed to the people. For these polemics tended to make this doctrine, in a one-sided manner, a matter of the mere understanding, and not unfrequently presented it in so rude a method as only to excite passion, and thus not unfrequently kept the real religious marrow of the doctrine in the back-ground. These erroneous tendencies had been already opposed by Melancthon in his Instructions to the Visitors.13 Luther, too, in his numerous sermons, gave admirable examples of a style of preaching adapted to lay hold of the heart and to arouse the moral sensibilities.14 But when

ordains, c. 30 (see Richter's Kirchenordnung, i. 68): In omnibus civitatibus, oppidis et pagis sint puerorum scholae, ubi rudimenta et scribendi rationem doceantur; however, this order, like the most of them, did not go into execution. In the Prussian Church Ordinance, 1568, the bishops were enjoined (ii. 302) to have schools for the cities, etc.: "Dass sie bei den Städten, auch ziemlichen Kirchen auf dem Lande anhalten, damit die Schulen wol bestellet und versehen werden." The peasants were required to pay eight schillinge for every hide [about thirty acres] of land, for the schoolmaster (p. 304). In the ecclesiastical ordinance of Electoral Saxony, 1580, the first question asked of the sacristans and guardians was, whether they would obey the order about the schools (ii. 413): "Ob er vermöge unser Ordnung die Schule angestellet, und alle Tage aufs wenigst vier Stunden Schul halte, besonders aber den Katechismum die Kinder mit Fleiss in der Schulen lehre, und mit ihnen Dr. Luther's geistliche Gesäng und Psalmen treibe." The school money was two pennies the week. Then, p. 450, they are exhorted to use all diligence about the schools, and see to them daily: "Es sollen auch alle Custodes und Dorfküsterer Schul halten, und derselben täglich mit allem Fleiss vermöge der Ordnung abwarten, darinnen die Knaben lehren lesen, schreiben, und christliche Gesänge, so in der Kirchen gebraucht werden sollen, darauf der Pfarrer sein fleissiges Aufsehen haben, und das Volk mit Ernst dazu vermahnen soll."

11 Which were also diffused among the people in Postils. So particularly both of Luther's Postils; and Anton Corvinus (professor in Marburg, general Superintendent in the principality of Calenberg, † 1553), Postillen über Evangelien und Episteln, mit Luther's Vorrede, 1535. 37. (first published in German, then also in Latin); Joh. Brenz, Postille über die Evangelien (published by Joh. Pollicarius). Frankf., 1550 (see Brenz, by Hartmann and Jäger, ii. 471); lastly the Postils of Joh. Gerhard (see § 48, Note 23). Jena, 1613, and Joh. Arnd (see below, § 50, Note 22). Leipsic, 1616.

12 See above, § 30, Note 2.

13 See above, § 34, Notes 20, 22.

14 Luther's homiletic rules are brought together in M. Conr. Portae (preacher in Eisleben, † 1585), Pastorale Lutheri, Leipzig, 1586. 4., and J. G. Walch's Sammlung klei

disputes arose in the bosom of the Church, the polemic harshness of Luther's other writings found numerous imitators even in the pulpit.15 The excellent homiletic directions of Andreas Hyperius16 and Nicolas Hemming (professor in Copenhagen, afterward canon in Rothschild, died 1600)1 had no great influence. Most of the sermons were filled with one-sided dogmatic and polemic matter. From the beginning of the seventeenth century a scholastic style of preaching prevailed, not unfrequently conjoined with entire lack of taste, or rude phraseology unworthy of the pulpit, and sometimes with a display of useless learning;18 so that even the five-fold Usus, which had become the rule in the structure of sermons, 19 could not make them useful for Christian culture. Pastoral in

ner Schriften v. d. Gott gefälligen Art zu predigen, Jena, 1746. Comp. Ph. H. Schuler's Gesch. der Veränderungen des Geschmacks im Predigen, insonderheit unter den Protestanten in Deutschland (3 Th., Halle, 1792. 93.), i. 38. E. Jonas, die Kanzelberedsamkeit Luther's nach ihrer Genesis, ihrem Character, Inhalt u. ihrer Form, Berlin, 1852. 15 Comp. the extracts from Mörlin's Sermons against Osiander, delivered in Konigsberg, 1551, in Salig's Hist. d. Augsb. Conf., ii. 966. That the Wittenbergers could be equally harsh is seen in Major's Predigt im Oct., 1557, gegen seine Widersacher, Salig, iii. 324.

16 See § 48, Note 2. A. Hyp. de formandis Concionibus Sacris, s. de Interpretatione Scripturarum populari, libb. ii, Marburgi, 1553, denuo ed. H. B. Wagnitz, Halae, 1781; comp. Schuler, i. 95.

17 Nic. Hemm. Pastor. Unterrichtunge, wie ein Pfarrherr und Seelsorger in Lehr, Leben, und allem Wandel sich christlich verhalten soll, Leipzig, 1566; comp. Schuler, i. 102.

19 Evidence of this in Schuler, i. 120, 150. On some of the better Saxon preachers, see Tholuck's Geist der Luther. Theologen Wittenbergs im 17ten Jahrh. (Hamburg and Gotha, 1852), s. 69. [Also, Tholuck, Lebenszeugen d. Lutherischen Kirche, 1859.]

19 Usus didascalicus, elenchthicus, paracleticus, epanorthoticus, and paedeuticus, after 2 Tim. iii. 16, and Rom. xv. 4. Dav. Chytraeus ad Hier. Mencelium, Superint. Islebiensem (Chytraei Epistt., p. 348): Utinam timore Dei et poenitentia et metu irae ac judicii divini adversus peccatum animos nostros et auditorum nostrorum ad verae pietatis ac justitiae et dilectionis Dei ac proximi exercitia potius, quam ad disputationum rixas, quae non sublatam, sed mutatam esse superioris aetatis sophisticam ostendunt, adsuefaceremus! (Joh. Val. Andreae) Veri Christianismi Solidaeque Philosophiae Libertas, Argentor., 1618. 12., p. 99: De Evangelii quidem voce clara, pura, vereque apostolica equidem est quod nobis gratulemur; nec id Antichristum latet, frementem cum reliquis Ecclesiae hostibus, ac ruptum paene medium : atque utinam nunquam contentiosorum, ambitiosorum spirituum impugnatione eo adactum fuisset, ut plus nunc in malignitatis eorum detectione evitationeque, quam nuda beneficiorum erga nos Dei confessione veritatisque agnitione nobis sit negotii factum. Ea res incautioribus imposuit, ut hac humanae rationis contentione et delectati admodum fuerint, et iis acquieverint, omnemque vitam imprudentissime absumpserint. Nempe Trinitatem definire quam adorare, praesentiam Christi probare quam omni tempore ac loco revereri, peccatorum poenitentiam describere quam intra se sentire, operum merita refutare quam opus bonum facere, ac per sacras literas frequenter volutari, quam dilectionis christianae praxi occupari malunt: denique theologiam scientiam aliquam faciunt, cujus cognitio veluti logices aut metaphysicae ad eruditionis famam impetrandam admodum utilis. Then follows a sad account of the village pastors of the time.

struction in the Catechism subsided into catechetical sermons, or was altogether abandoned.20 In the Reformed Church a strict discipline still upheld order;21 but in the German Lutheran Church they seemed to care only for orthodoxy ;22 and, besides, ignorance, immorality, and rudeness penetrated the popular mind, and reached a fearful height, especially during the devastations. of the Thirty Years' War.23 Belief in witchcraft was still prevalent, notwithstanding some opposition to it; and in the seven20 Schuler's Gesch. d. katechet. Religionsunterrichts unter den Protestanten, s. 84. 21 Jo. Val. Andreae Vita ab ipso conscripta, ex autographo ed. F. H. Rheinwald, Berol., 1849, p. 24: Dum Genevae essem (the spring of 1611), notavi rem magni momenti, et cujus non tam memoriam quam desiderium nisi cum vita nunquam posuero. Nam praeter perfectam reipublicae liberae formam atque curam peculiare ornamentum et disciplinae instrumentum urbs habet censuram, qua in omnes civium mores et minutissimos etiam excessus hebdomatim inquiritur, primum per inspectores vicanos, dein seniores, denique ipsum Senatum, prout rei atrocitas, aut delinquentis vel duritia vel pertinacia exegerit. Hinc prohibentur omnes dejerationes et execrationes, aleae et chartarum lusus, lascivia, petulantia, rixae, odia, doli, fraudes, emulsiones, comessationes, luxus, protervia, socordia, bilis immodica, rusticitas, nedum majora flagitia, quae propemodum inaudita hic sunt et insolita. Quae morum castimonia mirum quam decori sit religioni christianae, quam conveniens, quam propria, ut eam nobis abesse atque plane negligi omnibus lacrymis deplorandum sit, et ut restituatur bonis cunctis allaborandum. Me sane nisi religionis dissonantia arcuisset, morum consonantia aeternum devinxisset, adeoque omni nisu exinde studui, ut tale quid nostris Ecclesiis conciliarem.

22 How reckless they were is seen in the example of the great astronomer, John Kepler, who died 1630. Comp. John Kepler's Leben und Wirken, by J. L. C. Freih. v. Breitschwert, Stuttgart, 1831. Kepler was a devout Protestant, driven from Steiermark for his belief, in 1600, by the bigoted Ferdinand II. (p. 44); but he was tolerant toward other churches, and rejected the doctrine of ubiquity (p. 21); his assertion, that the Earth moved, was held to be contrary to Scripture (p. 35); and hence he could not find any post in his fatherland, Würtemberg (p. 55). Comp. Tholuck's Luth. Theologen Wittenbergs, s. 82.

23 J. B. Andrea und sein Zeitalter dargestellt, by W. Hossbach, Berlin, 1819, s. 35. Tholuck, s. 93.

24 Luther, too, believed that witches could harm men and cattle, but considered the opinion that they could transform themselves and ride through the air to be a deception of Satan: see Decem Praecepta praedicata ann. 1517, in Loscher's Reformationsacta, i. 593. Even John Kepler participated in the belief of his times as to witches; see Breitschwert, p. 130. On the other hand, was opposed by Joh. Wier (Leibarzt des Herzogs v. Cleve) de Praestigiis Daemonum, Incantationibus et Veneficiis, libb. vi., Basil., 1563. 4. (Noteworthy is Wier's correspondence with Brenz, 1565 and 1566. The latter had long opposed the opinion that hail and thunder storms could be produced by witches, but conceded that they might possibly injure men, and considered the laws to be just against those who, even erroneously, believed that they could hurt others with the help of the devil. On the other hand, he granted that the blind rage which was sacrificing so many as witches ought to be restrained; Joh. Brenz, by Hartmann and Jäger, ii. 484); Thom. Erastus (physician and philosopher in Basle) de Lamiis s. Strigibus, Basil., 1577 (Wundt's Mag. f. pfalzische Geschichte, ii. 210); Augustin Lercheimer's christl. Bedenken u. Erinnerung von Zauberei, Frankf., 1585, fol. (also in J. Scheible's Kloster, ii. 206); Gabriel Naudé (physician in Rome and Paris), Apologie pour les grands hommes, soupçonnés de Magie, Paris, 1625; Cautio criminalis, s. de processibus contra sagas, lib. ad magistratus Germaniae hoc tempore necessarius, auctore incerto theologo orthod. (Frid. Spee,