spring begins; when he is at another point we have midsummer, at another autumn, and at another midwinter, for all time.

Hipparchus, not long after his observations, began to suspect that the position of these stages in the sun's track is not unchanging. He found that according to Timocharis, who had observed about a century and a half before his time, the bright star Spica was eight degrees behind the autumnal equinoctial point of his time, about 290 years B. C. I say behind, meaning that the sun had travelled eight degrees past Spica when he reached the equinoctial point. But Hipparchus found that in his own time, and especially from 129 to 125 B. c., when he carefully studied this particular subject, the star Spica was only about six degrees from the equinoctial point. At first he supposed that possibly the stars along the zodiac-the zone centrally traversed by the sun-might be shifting slowly in a direction opposite to that of the sun's motion. He thought this unlikely, however, because if certain stars changed in position while other stars retained their position, the constellations would be changed. On comparing the positions of stars outside this zone with the positions which earlier observations assigned to such stars, he found that they also partake in the change, as he had anticipated.

The nature of the change thus discovered is often misunderstood. Some little attention is required on the student's part clearly to apprehend it. The stars themselves are not affected by any change so far as this shifting of the equinoctial points is concerned. The position of the sun's course among the stars, again, remains (so far as this motion is concerned) altogether unaltered. What changes, is the position of the polar axis, about which the entire stellar sphere seems to rotate. The equator, or circle midway between the poles of rotation, changes in position, of course, as they change. These poles, which lie 23 degrees from the unchanging poles of the ecliptic, travel round, retaining this distance almost unchanged, each completing a circuit in about 25,900 years. As a consequence, the celestial equator, retaining its inclination to the ecliptic almost unaltered, shifts round so that its points of intersection with the ecliptic make (each) a complete circuit in a direction contrary to that of the sun's motion, in the same enormous period of time.

He

Hipparchus only indicated so much as this, all but the true period, which his observations did not enable him to determine exactly. showed that such and such a change takes place in the position of the polar axis of the stellar sphere, and therefore of the equator, the tropics, colures, and so forth,-all the circles, in fact, which are determined in position by the poles of the diurnal celestial rotation. He left later astronomers and mathematicians to determine whether the change is due to movements really affecting the star sphere, or to a change in the position of the earth herself. And it was left to still more profound research to determine how the actual movement to which the change is due is brought about. But it was a noble discovery, in the days of Hipparchus, to show that what had been regarded as altogether unchanging,

the rotational motion of the sphere of the so-called fixed stars, is in reality subject to slow yet constant change. Whether we consider the interest which the phenomenon possessed in this respect, or the impressive thoughts suggested by the tremendous time-interval necessary for the completion of the precessional circuit, we recognise in this discovery an achievement which marks an epoch in the progress of astronomy. From the time when Hipparchus had established the law of this great precessional change, astronomers found a new and deeper significance in the celestial motions. They saw that the apparent motions, even though unchanging to all appearance, for hundreds, or even (to ordinary observation) for thousands of years, are in reality affected by continual fluctuations, scarce perceptible in one sense, but only because they are so stupendous, that compared with the periods required for their development the duration of the astronomer's life seems but a mere instant. The third and greatest work of Hipparchus is so important that it will require a chapter to itself.

RICHARD A. PROCTOR, in The Day of Rest.

COUNT FERSEN.

READERS of Sir Walter Scott's delightful novel of "The Abbot" will recollect now Mary Stuart, imprisoned in the island of Loch Leven, found her consolation in the knowledge that a band of trusty friends were plotting her deliverance; how lights were seen flitting on the mainland, signalling that the fiery Seyton and the devoted Douglas were on the eve of accomplishing their design. As with Mary Stuart, so with Marie Antoinette. The unfortunate Queen of France, surrounded by gaolers in comparison with whom the savage Scotch of the sixteenth century were miracles of kindness and mercy, yet knew this, that there was one friend whose only thought in life was to free her from the toils with which she was encompassed, a man of unbounded daring, and possessel of that much rarer quality, infinite discretion, without the least thought of self, except to keep himself free from the slightest taint of dishonour. Everybody who peruses his Memoirs must agree that the age of chivalry was not dead that produced a hero, sans peur et sans reproche, like the gallant Fersen.

The Count Jean Axel de Fersen, of an illustrious Swedish family, was born on the 4th of September, 1755. His father, Field-Marshal de Fersen, took an active part in politics during the reign of Gustavus. The young Count, at the age of fifteen, was sent with a tutor on a con

*Published at Paris from papers in possession of Count Fersen's nephew, Baron Klinckowström.

tinental tour of long duration. He visited Italy and Switzerland, where he had the honour of an interview with Voltaire.

It was not till his nineteenth year that he first appeared at the Court of Versailles. He early attracted the attention of the Dauphiness, and it is evident that Marie Antoinette became very much interested in the handsome young Swede. Count Ferson mentions in his journal that he was present at the ball of "* Madame La Dauphine," which commenced at the sensible hour of five, and finished at half-past nine. And the Count relates how at a masked ball at the Opera House the Dauphiness engaged him a long time in conversation without his at first recognising her. On Count Fersen leaving Paris for London, the Swedish ambassador thus writes to the King of Sweden:

"The young Count Fersen is about to leave Paris for London. He is (of all the Swedes who have been here in my time) the one who has been the best received in the great world. The royal family have shown him much attention. He could not possibly have conducted himself with more discretion and good sense than he has shown. With his handsome person and his talent (l'esprit), he could not fail to succeed in society, and that he has done so completely your Majesty will be pleased to hear. That which above all makes M. de Fersen worthy of the distinction shown him is the nobility and elevation of his character."

The Count on his arrival in England was presented at Court, visited Ranelagh and other sights of London. His account of Almack's is as follows:

"Thursday, 19th May 1774.-I have been presented to the Queen, who is very gracious and amiable, but not at all pretty. In the evening I was taken by Comte

to Almack's,' a subscription ball which is held during the winter. The room in which they dance is well arranged and brilliantly lighted. The ball is supposed to begin at ten o'clock, but the men remain at their clubs until half past eleven. During this time the women are kept waiting, seated on sofas on either side of the great gallery in great formality; one would fancy oneself in a church, they look so serious and quiet, not even talking amongst themselves. The supper, which is at twelve o'clock, is very well served, and somewhat less dull than the rest of the entertainment. I was placed by the side of Lady Carpenter,* one of the handsomest girls in London; she was very agreeable, and conversed a great deal. I had occasion to meet her again some days later, when, to some civil remark 1 addressed her with, she did not even reply. It surprises one to see young girls talking unreservedly with men, and going about by themselves; I am reminded of Lausanne in this, where also they enjoy complete liberty."

The Count returned to Sweden in the beginning of 1775. He had already entered the French service in the regiment Royal Barrière. In Sweden he became an officer in a cavalry regiment, and soon attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He remained in Sweden some time, joining in the pursuits and amusements of the young nobility at the gay court of Gustavus III. In 1778 he proceeded on another voyage, and passed three months in London, from whence he proceeded to Paris, arriving there in the dead season. Afterwards he went on a visit to the camp of the Count de Broglie in Normandy, and inspected the monastery of La Trappe, of which he gives some interesting details.

Probably Lady Almeria Carpenter, daughter of Lord Tyrconnel.

In the winter he again appeared at the French Court. He writes to his father:

"Last Tuesday I went to Versailles to be presented to the royal family. The Queen, who is charming, exclaimed, 'Ah! an old acquaintance! The rest of the royal family did not say a word."

The Count writes again :

"The Queen, who is the handsomest and the most amiable princess, has orten had the kindness to inquire after me. She asked Creutz why I did not come to her 'jeu* on Sundays, and on hearing that I had been one day when it did not take place, she made a kind of apology.

"The Queen treats me always with great courtesy. I often go to pay my respects (au jeu), and on every occasion she addresses me with some words of kindness. As they had spoken to her about my Swedish uniform, she expressed a great wish to see me in it, and I am to go full dressed, not to Court, but to see the Queen. She is the most amiable princess that I know."

In society as well as at Court, Count Fersen's success was complete. In M. Geffroy's 'Gustave III. et la Cour de France,' there are many anecdotes respecting it. But of course triumph begets envy, and the favourites of Marie Antoinette, whose relations with her were quite as innocent as those of Count Fersen, began spreading malicious reports about their new rival.

M. Geffroy in his work thus describes the state of affairs:

"On Fersen's return to France, his favour at Court was so great that it could not fail to be much remarked. It was in the year 1779, and we know that the wicked suspicions raised against Marie Antoinette had not waited for the fatal affair of the necklace before attacking her as Sovereign and Woman. Fersen was received in the Queen's intimate circle; the admission extended to Stedingk+ was supposed to be a blind, to conceal the much-desired presence of his friend. They brought up against the Queen the small parties given by Mesdames de Lamballe and de Polignac, in their apartments, to which Fersen was admitted; they spoke of meetings and prolonged interviews at the masked balls, (bals de l'opéra), of looks interchanged when other intercourse was wanting at the soirées intimes,' at Trianon. They declared that the Queen had been seen to look expressively at Fersen, whilst singing the impassioned lines from the opera of Didou :'

"Ah! que je fus bien inspirée

Quand je vous recus dans ma cour'

-to seek his eyes and ill conceal her feelings towards him. Nothing more was wanting than to add publicly the name of the young Count to those with which Calumny hoped henceforth to arm herself against Marie Antoinette."

Again, in a secret despatch addressed to Gustavus III. by the Count de Creutz, we find an account of Fersen's attitude in the situation that was made so difficult for him.

"10th April 1779.-I must confide to your Majesty that the young Count Fersen has been so well received by the Queen, as to give umbrage to many persons; I must own to thinking that she has a great preference for him; I have seen indications of it too strong to be doubted. The modesty and reserve of young Fersen's conduct have been admirable, and above all, the step he has taken in going to

*The games played at the "jeu de la Reine" were quinze, banards, and trictrac + Count Fersen's friend and travelling companion.

+ The Swedish ambassador.

America is to be commended; in absenting himself he escapes all danger, but it evidently required a power of self-command, beyond his years, to overcome such an attraction. The Queen has followed him with her eyes (full of tears) during the last days preceding his going away. I implore your Majesty to keep this secret on her account, and on that of 'Senateur' Fersen. When the news of the Count's departure was known, all the favourites were delighted. The Duchess of FitzJames said to him, What! monsieur, you abandon your conquest?' 'If I had made one,' he replied, I should not have abandoned it. I go away free, and unfortunately without leaving any regrets.' Your Majesty will agree that this was said with a wisdom and prudence marvellous in one so young. But the Queen is more reserved and cautious than formerly. The King not only consults all her wishes, but takes part in her pursuits and amusements."

Count Fersen accompanied the French army to America as aide-decamp to General Rochambeau, and, owing to his talents and his knowledge of the English language, he was made the intermediary of communication between Washington and the French commander. letters from America do not show much appreciation of the people he assisted to free. But then allies always speak ill of one another.

The Count writes:

His

"Money is in all their actions the first object, and their only thought is how to gain it. Every one is for himself, no one for the public good. The inhabitants of the coast, even the best Whigs, supply the English fleet, anchored in Gardner's Bay, with provisions of all kinds, because they pay them well; they fleece us without compunction: everything is an exorbitant price; in all the dealings we have had with them they have treated us more like enemies than friends. Their covetousness is unequalled, money is their god; virtue, honour, all that is nothing to them in comparison with this precious metal. Not but what there are some estimable people among them, there are many who are noble and generous, but I speak of the nation in general, which seems to me to be more Dutch than English."

The Count was present at the surrender of Lord Cornwallis at York Town, which virtually ended the war, and returned to France after the conclusion of the peace of 1783. He still remained in the Swedish service, although at the request of Gustavus III. he received the appointment of Colonel Proprietor of the regiment of Royal Suédois in the service of France. The Count henceforth passed his time between the two countries.

In 1787 he again visited England, and there is a curious account of a fracas that took place between Lady Clermont, the friend of Marie Antoinette and the Prince of Wales at a London assembly, respecting Count Fersen. The Prince's conduct with respect to the Count does not tend to the credit of the "first gentleman of Europe." The insinuations against the Queen of France concerning her relations with the high-minded Swedish nobleman we believe are utterly groundless. There is not a particle of trustworthy evidence that the Queen ever infringed upon the duties of a wife and a mother. Count Fersen was only her friend and servant, more devoted in the dark winter of adversity than in the sunny days of regal grandeur and prosperity. The Duke de Levis, in his Memoirs, describes him as one "who had more judgment than wit, who was cautious with men, reserved towards women, whose air and figure were those of a hero of romance, but not of a French romance, for he was not sufficiently light and brilliant."