A fair number of skeletal remains to which the title Quaternary has been applied can now be vouched for as beyond question.

All the finds may be grouped as belonging to one of two races the Neanderthal race, which shows striking differences from modern man, and the Cro-Magnon race, which clearly exhibits affinity with him. The oldest of all the remains is the jaw unearthed in Mauer, near Heidelberg. It belongs either to the Old or the Middle Quaternary, and Obermaier's avowedly most conservative minimum estimate sets its age at 100,000 years. Clearly human in its teeth, this find resembles other Neanderthal remains in its chin less character and surpasses all in primitiveness by virtue of the extraordinary massiveness of the jaw. A remarkable find made in December, 1912, near Piltdown, Sussex, by Dawson, consisting of part of a skull, a lower jaw, and a

canine tooth, has been the subject of vigorous discussion, especially by Drs. Keith and Smith Woodward, the latter assigning it to a distinct genus of humanity, which he dubs Eoanthropus dawsoni. The interest of the find, which some regard as contemporaneous with Chellean objects, lies in the incongruity of the distinctively human forehead with the apelike jaw.

Among the best-known remains of the Neanderthal type may be mentioned a burial at Le Moustier belonging to the Late Acheulean or Old Mousterian epoch, the burials of La Ferrassie and La Chapelle-aux-Saints (Mousterian), the jaw of La Naulette, and the two Spy skeletons (all from Belgium and of the Mousterian epoch), the Neanderthal skull proper (of uncertain epoch, but almost certainly Old Paleolithic), and the Croatian skeletons from Krapina (Late Chellean). All these and other Neanderthaloid remains point to a thickset race of short stature (160 centimeters), with low, long, and narrow skullcap, receding forehead, very prominent brow ridges, and massive lower jaw without projection of the chin. The Neanderthal type was not by any means uniform, however. Thus, while the West European specimens of the race indicate dolichocephalic skulls (70 to 75.7), the Krapina fragments show a distinct tendency to brachycephaly.

The Cro-Magnon race certainly dates back to Aurignacian times, as proved by the skeletons of Mentone, Cro-Magnon and Laugerie Haute (Dordogne), and Combe-Capelle (Périgord). Important Magdalenian finds were made at Laugerie Basse, La Madeleine, and Chancelade (all in the Dordogne district). The tendency to variation was far more strongly pronounced among the Cro-Magnon people than among their Neanderthaloid predecessors and contemporaries. Thus, the skeletal remains in the Grimaldi grottoes point to a lofty stature of 187 centimeters (6 feet, 11⁄2 inches), while that of the CombeCapelle man does not seem to have exceeded 166 centimeters. In all Cro-Magnon specimens, however, the skullcap is high, the brow ridges are unobtrusive, the jaw is less massive, and there is a pronounced chin. There is marked dolichocephaly, the index being 65.7 for that from Combe-Capelle, but with a considerable range of variation (Cro-Magnon, 73.8). Some of the Grimaldi remains have been interpreted as belonging to a Negroid people, but this conclusion has not been definitely established. The precise relations of the Neanderthal and Cro-Magnon races are by no means clear. Among other hypotheses it has been suggested that the Cro-Magnon men did not develop from the Neanderthalers, but originated outside of Europe, immigrated, became in part blended with the native populations, and ultimately supplanted them.

After these Paleolithic epochs, during which man attained not only his present physical type. but also a very creditable degree of industrial and artistic culture, came the Neolithic or Polished Stone period, followed by the Bronze or Tsiganian period, and this by the age of Iron These changes did not come by sudden breaking down of the Stone and Bronze ages, but hr transitional steps with a separate history in each of the countries of Europe. For instance, the Polished Stone period was not developed simultaneously over the continent. Scandinavia. in its northern parts, was covered with glaciers and only in the refuse piles in Denmark are polished-stone hatchets found contemporaneously

quite long-headed, the ratio of the length to the width of the skull being as low as 65-75. These earliest of European industrial peoples had also long faces like some existing populations of Europe. It must be carefully noted at this point that in Sweden, France, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Spain, and Portugal crania of short-headed peoples are found mixed with dolichocephalic skulls. This tells an important story, for it clearly shows that with progress race mixture had begun to take place, the borrowing of blood being associated with the community of arts. Another fact worthy of notice is that the erection of huge stone and earth monuments, called barrows by ethnologists, indicates the consolidation of society, implying an increasing number of persons who could be brought together in the same enterprise, and the consequent raising of an artificial food supply so that these masses might coöperate for longer periods of time.

The so-called ages of Metal in Europe, i.e., of Copper, Bronze, and Iron, comprise the remaining epochs in the popular scheme of European archæology. In America the earliest implements in copper were cold-hammered and ground into shape, the material being treated technically precisely as if it were stone. It is not surprising, therefore, to find the same condition of things in Europe. The parallelism is almost perfect in every respect. Copper tools and weapons do not mark a separate epoch, meaning that the stone implements ceased to be used at once, nor must it be inferred that there was a Copper age as distinguished from a Bronze age, for copper tools and weapons are found associated with bronze relics. And here arises one of the most interesting inquiries of all, how far the exquisite products in bronze, found all over Europe, are results of indigenous development, and how far they indicate commerce or instruction from without. There is no doubt that both of these factors coöperated, the result of which was the art as it existed in each region.

It is a well-known law of progress that suggestion is one of the strongest incentives to the use of materials and processes. There existed in central and western Europe a Bronze age, which in some characteristics of its products resembles the Orient and in others is entirely original. The art of bronze smelting and working could not arise originally and develop completely and independently in any land; and secondly, such an art could not be imposed bodily upon a people who were not far enough advanced to add to it many thoughts and technical processes of their own. Progress and complexity in artificial activities are produced by the mutual influence of races and peoples. In proof of this the Bronze age witnessed the coming of a great variety of physical types. In England the people became more brachycephalic, the ratio of head length to head width being 81. In Sweden and Denmark long-headed people, tall and fair-haired, coexisted with those of much larger index. In the valley of the Rhine, as well as in southern Germany and Switzerland, the dolichocephaly was more pronounced. Knowledge of the use of fire among the peoples of the Bronze age was contemporaneous also with the cremation of the dead.

The earliest relics of the Iron age are found in the hamlet of Hallstatt, in Upper Austria, in thousands of graves, revealing implements of industry, weapons, and personal ornaments,

but no pottery. At first it seemed to have had no affiliation with any other national art, but later researches put the earliest Iron age as a medium between the more advanced art of southern Europe and the West. Iron gradually replaced bronze, which had then passed into its aesthetic stage, and revealed the existence of Oriental influence in Europe. The long heads also became mingled with short heads, and in the La Tene, also called Marnean, epoch, skulls vary almost as much as at the present day. Von Luschan is of opinion that all the brachycephalic Europeans (Alpine race) are genetically related with the Hittites of western Asia, and holds that there were successive immigrations of short-headed peoples, the most recent and historically best-established one being that of the Magyars. On the other hand, Schliz inclines to the theory of a European origin of the brachycephalous skulls found in Europe.

The types of races mentioned extend far beyond the boundaries of Europe into Asia and Africa. The lines between the continents are entirely artificial.

Ripley finds three separate biological races of men in Europe:

1.

2.

TEUTONIC RACE. Dolicholeptorhine of Kollmann; Reihengräber of German writers; Germanie of English; Kymric of French; Nordie of Deniker; and Homo europeus of Lapouge.

ALPINE RACE (or Celtic). Celto-Slavic of French writers; Sarmatian of Von Hölder; Disentis of German writers; Arvernian of Beddoe; Occidental of Deniker: Homo Alpinus of Lapouge; and Lappanoid of Pruner-Bey.

3. MEDITERRANEAN RACE. Iberian of English writers; Ligurian of Italian writers; Ibero-Insular and Atlanto-Mediterranean of Deniker.

Inquiry into the causes of difference in stature, head form, and color, leads to the profoundest of biological studies. To say that inheritance and variation are sufficient to account for them is to explain nothing. Even stature is not always a matter of nutrition. Much controversy has arisen over the origin of blondness in northern Europe. No doubt, albinism is more pronounced in Europe. Its marked appearance elsewhere is among the kindred peoples in northern Africa and southeastern Asia. The popular notion that exposure to the action of the sun's rays is the cause of brunetteness is altogether erroneous. No single known cause produces either albinism or brunetteness. It is quite probable that long ago the subspecies to which Europeans belong were yellow or Mongoloid in color. and that by the cooperation of environment and obscure physiological processes these characteris ties became fixed and persistent through heredity.

Having fixed these three biological types in mind, the difficulty is in finding their representatives in modern Europe. Race is a matter of blood kinship, requiring isolation under favorable conditions for bringing about new character