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Monophysites, published by the Emperor Zeno in 482. The schism thus inaugurated (484) was not healed till the year 519. The only literary remains of this pontiff are the letters and other acts of this controversy. He is a saint in the Roman Calendar, and his day is February 25.-FELIX IV (Pope from 526 to 530). He was a native of Benevento. His pontificate presents no noteworthy event. He is also a saint in the Roman Calendar, and his day is January 30.-FELIX V (Antipope from 1439 to 1449). He was Amadeus VIII, Duke of Savoy. He was born in 1383 and succeeded his father, Amadeus VII, as Count of Savoy in 1391. In 1416 Savoy was erected into a duchy. As a ruler, Amadeus was mild, just, and successful, and distinguished for his piety. In 1434 he resigned the rule to his son and retired to the hermitage of Ripaille, on the south bank of Lake Geneva. There he and some companions lived as hermits. He was nominated in the Council of Basel to succeed Eugenius IV (q.v.) in 1439 and elected on the fifth ballot, although it was objected to him that he had been married and had children, and that he was not an ecclesiastic and had no knowledge of theology or other fitness for the position. His election was not well received, and he so conspicuously failed to get recognition as Pope from the princes of Europe that he voluntarily resigned after a schismatical reign of 10 years. He was then rewarded by being made Cardinal Bishop of Basel, Lausanne, Constance, and Strassburg, and also Papal Vicar-General for all the states ruled by the house of Savoy. He died Jan. 7, 1451. Consult Pastor, The History of the Popes, vols. i, ii (London, 1899).

FELIX, ANTONIUS. Roman procurator of Judæa (52-? A.D.). He was a younger brother of Pallas, the favorite of the Emperor Claudius, and, like his brother, evidently a freedman of Antonia, the mother of Claudius. Because of this fact, perhaps, he received the honor, unusual for freedmen, of military command as well as civic office. Of the earliest part of his public career little is known. His character has been painted by Tacitus in darkest colors, as that of a cruel, lustful, and unprincipled man, with the disposition of a slave, who thought that his influential friends at Rome would afford him such protection that he could commit all kinds of crime with impunity. He was thrice marriedonce to a granddaughter of M. Antony and Cleopatra; the third time to Drusilla, daughter of Herod Agrippa I and sister of Agrippa II, whom he persuaded to desert her husband, the King of Emesa. He succeeded Cumanus procurator of Judæa in 52 A.D., and probably held the position till 58, although the latter date is disputed. Previous to this he may have been Governor of Galilee for a short time (so Tacitus). His appointment to the procuratorship of Judæa is said to have been at the suggestion of the high priest Jonathan, then in Rome in connection with the trial of Cumanus for misgovernment. His rule was marked by ceaseless disturbances and revolts, against which he acted with a severity that finally resulted in his recall to Rome. Most noted among the uprisings was that of the Zealots, his oppression of whom gave rise, or at least new impulse, to the fanatical Sicarii. (See ZEALOT.) The disturbance which occasioned his removal from office was the riot between the Jewish and Syrian inhabitants of Cæsarea, regarding the

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equality of their political privileges, in the quelling of which Felix acted with great cruelty but was unsuccessful, and the consideration of the case was removed to Rome, Felix being recalled before a decision was given. It was only through the influence of Pallas that Felix escaped punishment for his maladministration of his office. Nothing is known of his later career.

It was to Felix that Claudius Lysias, for reasons of safety, sent Paul from Jerusalem after his arrest in that city (56 A.D.), and it was before this procurator that the Apostle's first hearings were held. From these no decision was reached. Paul was remanded to prison, where he was kept, though under lenient regulations, through the remaining two years of Felix's term of service, his trial never being completed. There, also, for the sake of pleasing the Jews, with whom his relations were at that time specially strained, Paul was left by the procurator on his return to Rome (Acts xxiii. 23-xxiv. 27). See NEW TESTAMENT CHRONOLOGY; PAUL; FESTUS.

FELIX, ELISE RACHEL. See RACHEL, MLLE. FELIX, MARCUS MINUCIUS. A Roman lawyer and Christian, author of Octavius, a dialogue in defense of Christianity, probably the oldest Christian work extant in the Latin tongue. Nothing is known of the author. The date of the book is put about 160. It is in Migne, Patrologia Latina, iii, and in English translation in the Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. iv (Buffalo, 1889).

FELIX, SAINT, THE MARTYR. A Christian missionary of the third century. Regula, his sister and fellow martyr, and he are said to have been the first preachers of the gospel at Zurich, Switzerland. The legend is that they were executed by the Governor Decius at the order of the tyrant Maximian. Before the Reformation they were venerated as patrons of the city, on whose seal they appear with their severed heads in their hands. Their day is September 11. Consult Mittheilungen der antiquarischen Gesellschaft zu Zürich, vols. i and ii (1841).

FELIX HOLT, THE RADICAL. known novel by George Eliot (1866).

A well

FELIX'IANS. A Spanish sect of the latter part of the eighth century, so called from Felix, Bishop of Urgella. See ADOPTIAN CONTROVERSY.

FELIXMAR'TE OF HYRCANIA, hĕr-kā'ni-a. An old Spanish romance, chiefly notable as being among the works with which Don Quixote fostered his idealism before setting forth upon his adventures. The title character is a valiant knight who slays many giants.

FELIX OF VALOIS, vȧ'lwä' (1127-1212). A cofounder of the Trinitarians (q.v.). He gave his goods to be sold for the poor and retired to a hermitage near Meaux. In 1198, accompanied by St. John of Matha, he obtained from Pope Innocent III the right to found the Order of the Trinitarians, which worked for the redemption of Christian captives from the Moors. Felix was canonized in 1666, and his feast is November 20.

FELL, JOHN (1625-86). An English clergyman and educator, born at Longworth (Berkshire). He graduated at Christ Church, Oxford, in 1643, was a zealous Loyalist during the Commonwealth, and was appointed canon and then dean of Christ Church in 1660. From 1666 to 1668, and during a portion of 1669, he was vice chancellor of the university. He added several

buildings to Christ Church and greatly improved its scholastic discipline. He also developed the press of the university and encouraged the collation of manuscripts and other scholarly undertakings. In 1684, by command of James II, he expelled from his studentship in Christ Church John Locke, whom he had publicly defended two years before. He became Bishop of Oxford in 1675. His publications include a critical edition (1682) of the works of Cyprian and a critical New Testament (1675); and he aided John Mill in his New Testament studies. He was the subject of a well-known epigram by Thomas Brown (q.v.), and he was bitterly criticized by Anthony à Wood, whose History of Oxford Fell published (1674) in a Latin version with notorious editorial changes, especially an attack on Hobbes.

FELLAH (pl. Fellahin; Ar. fellaḥ, laborer, from falaha, to till). One of the agricultural or laboring class of the people of the Nile valley. In Egypt there was a partial differentiation of the population in early times analogous to that which in India developed into caste (q.v.). This division was perhaps based at least in part on an original diversity or race, and the chief surviving classes are the Bedouin, who are the warlike and wandering people of the deserts, and the Fellahin, who comprise the peaceful and sedentary folk of the annually inundated bottom lands. In general, the Fellahin constitute the peasantry and the Bedouin the soldiery of Egypt; ie, the distinction is industrial and social rather than ethnic-indeed, there are no constant ethnic differences. As a class, the Fellahin are docile and lacking in initiative, but they retain in form and feature the characteristics of their ancestors, the monument builders of ancient Egypt. The women are especially noted for their comeliness. See EGYPT, ETHNOLOGY.

FELLATAH. See FULAH.

FELLENBERG, féllen-běrк, PHILIP EMAN UEL VON (1771-1844). A Swiss agriculturist and educator. He was born in Bern and was educated at Tübingen. After a sojourn in Paris he settled in Bern, whence he was banished during the French invasion in 1798. Subsequently recalled, he was sent as Ambassador to Paris, where his services largely contributed to ameliorate the political conditions then prevailing in Switzerland. Later in life he devoted himself exclusively to the advancement of agriculture and the improvement of Swiss education through experiments on his estate at Hofwyl. In 1804 he established an orphan asylum, which began to be used only after he associated Wehrli with the work in 1808. In 1807 he founded the Literary Institute or Academy for children of the nobles and gentry. A colony for poor boys was established in 1816, and in 1827 a real intermediate school was opened for boys of the middle classes. Normal courses for the training of Swiss teachers were held during vacations. While Fellenberg aimed to provide an all-round education according to the needs of each class, he also hoped by associating all the classes together to bring about a feeling of sympathy and understanding between them. At Hofwyl more than 2000 pupils are said to have been taught. Endeavor was twice made to unite Fellenberg's establishments with those of Pestalozzi; but the two teachers were not sufficiently in harmony. The practical educational influence of Fellenberg upon his native land was,

perhaps, even greater than that of Pestalozzi, while abroad Hofwyl was almost as well known as Yverdon. The manual-training movement in which many American institutions had their origin is probably due to Fellenberg's influence, while at least one well-known school with which Professor Tyndall was associated was estab lished on similar lines in England. His literary activity was comparatively unimportant. Consult Hamm, Fellenbergs Leben und Wirken (Bern, 1845).

FEL/LING. A town in Durham Co., England, constituting an eastern suburb of Gates head. It has manufactures of chemicals and glassware, and there are large collieries in the vicinity. Pop., 1901, 22,467; 1911, 25,026.

FELLOW COMMONER. A term applied formerly at Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin universities to those undergraduates who were ad mitted to colleges by paying at a time when they were intended only for fellows and scholars on the foundation. The class of undergraduates had the privilege of dining at the fellows' table --whence the name, which for a time was superseded by the term "gentleman commoner." terms are now practically obsolete, Worcester College, Oxford, being the only instance where the term fellow commoner still appears, and Downing College, Cambridge, being the last which used the term until within recent years.

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FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES (1799-1860). English antiquarian, born at Nottingham. He early showed a fondness for travel and after 1832 spent a large part of his time in the Levant. In 1838 he began a series of journeys from Smyrna into parts of Asia Minor, at that time almost unknown to Europeans. His chief discoveries were in ancient Lycia, where he ascended the valley of the Patara, finding the ruins of Xanthus, the ancient capital, Tlos, and other sites, copying inscriptions, and making drawings of the architecture and sculpture. He then returned to England and published A Journal Written during an Excursion in Asia Minor, by Charles Fellows (London, 1839). In 1839 he again visited Lycia and discovered the ruins of no fewer than 13 cities, each of which contained works of art. Another work, entitled An Account of Discoveries in Lycia, Being a Journal Kept during a Second Excursion in Asia Minor (London, 1841), was the result of this journey. In 1841 an expedition left England for the purpose of selecting works of art from the ancient cities discovered by Fellows, who accompanied the expedition and directed its operations. Authorized by a firman from the Sultan, they made their selections and returned in the spring of 1842. Another expedition, under Fellows, sent out by the trustees of the British Museum, brought home 27 cases of marbles and casts in 1844. The sculptures, among which are the so-called Harpy and Nereid monuments from Xanthus, are now exhibited in the Lycian Room of the British Museum. In all his expeditions he paid his own expenses. In 1845 he was rewarded by the honor of knighthood. His other works are: The Xanthian Marbles: Their Acquisition and Transmission to England (1843); An Account of the Ionic Trophy Monament Excavated at Xanthus (1848); a reissue of his earlier journals under the title Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, Particularly in the Province of Lycia (1852); and Coins of Ancient Lycia before the Reign of Alexander: with an Essay on the Relative Dates of the

Lycian Monuments in the British Museum (1855).

FELLOW SERVANTS. A term used in the rule governing the liability of employers to their employees for injuries sustained by the latter in the course of their employment, to designate those who are employed by a common master in the promotion of a common enterprise, and whose relations are such as to make the safety of any one depend, in the ordinary and natural course of things, on the care and skill of the others. Accordingly an engine driver is a fellow servant of a switchman when they are serv ing a common employer in conducting a common business; while the seamen of one ocean steamer are not fellow servants of those of another steamer, although the vessels are owned by the same person. In the latter case the relations

of the two crews are not such as to render the safety of one dependent, in the natural and ordinary course of things, upon the care and skill of the other.

Although the definition of fellow servant stated above is sustained by the English decisions, by those of our Federal courts, and by those of the great majority of our State tribunals, it has been rejected in a few jurisdictions. There the view has prevailed that the employees of a common master are not to be deemed fellow servants within the rule relating to employers' liability unless they are of equal rank. In these jurisdictions the conductor of a railway train, accordingly, is not the fellow servant of a brakeman; nor is the superintendent of a mill, nor the foreman of a gang of laborers, a fellow servant of those who are subject to his control. If a subordinate is injured through the negligence of his superior, the master is liable for such injury.

In the other class of jurisdictions the master is not liable unless the act is one which he is

under an absolute legal duty to perform properly. This legal duty binds the employer to provide for his employees a safe place to work; to provide safe machinery and appliances; to formulate suitable rules and regulations for the safe conduct of his business, if such rules are needed; to warn his employees of danger which they could not or would not ordinarily discover; and to provide suitable superintendents and colaborers. If he delegates either of these duties to an employee, no matter what his grade or rank, the negligence or misconduct of the employee in the performance of that duty is in law the negligence or misconduct of the employer. For it he is liable to the injured serv ant. Perhaps it should be added that the negligent servant is liable to the person injured by his negligence, whether the latter is a fellow servant or not.

Consult: McKinney, Treatise on the Law of Fellow-Servants (Northport, 1890), and Bailey, The Law of Master's Liability for Injuries to Servants (St. Paul, 1894). See EMPLOYER'S LIABILITY.

FELLOWSHIP (from fellow, Icel. félagi, from félag, partnership, from fe, property, Eng. fee lag, a laying together, AS. lagu, Eng. law Eng. ship; cf. Icel. félagsskapr, fellowship). An institution which arose in connection with the mediæval colleges, originally eleemosynary in their character. The members, or "fellows" (socii), as they are called, usually had a boarding place in common and received regular stipends provided for out of the income of the

foundation. Such a college was established at the University of Bologna as early as 1267, and the beginning of the institution at the University of Paris is traced to a permanent though humble provision for sleeping accommodations and for small stipends to be given to 18 scholar clerks, the founder being a pious man, one Dominus Jocius of London. At Oxford a foundation was in 1243 established for two priests, who, while pursuing their studies, should say mass for the soul of their benefactor. In 1249 University College was founded with an income for the support of 10 or more masters of arts, who were studying theology. At Cambridge, St. Peter's College was founded in 1284. The recipients of these benefactions were usually required to pass certain examinations or to have attained a certain standard and often to show their need of such support. Frequently, however, the founder retained the patronage, which was restricted to his kin or to the members of a certain diocese or district. By the University Act of 1854 such restrictions were removed in England. At present the fellowships there are ordinarily confined to the graduates of the university to which the college belongs. At Bologna the College of Spain still survives, having five or six students. The great Parisian endowments disappeared as a result of wars and revolutions. A fellowship in the Sorbonne is now merely an honorary distinction. In England the fellowships steadily increased in number and value for a time, but the tendency at present is to limit the emoluments and to require some research or other work from the holders. Today their income ranges from £200 to £300 per annum. To this is added the privilege of occupying certain apartments and in some cases of enjoying perquisites in meals or commons. The ordinary length of tenure of a fellowship is six or seven years; a few are tenable for life. In general they are forfeited should the holder attain to certain preferments in the Church or at the bar and sometimes in the case of his succeeding to property above a certain amount. Except by special vote of the college the holder of a fellowship forfeits it by marriage. English fellows usually carry on instruction in their own colleges and are frequently professors in the university as well or hold other academic positions. In the newer English universities the fellowships are, as a rule, tenable for from one to three years, are rarely worth more than £150 a year, and require research work from the holder.

The

In the colleges and universities of the United States the term "fellow" often means trustee, as, in one sense, at Harvard. On the other hand, the ordinary fellowship is an honor bearing with it a certain annual stipend, which varies from $120 to $1500. The average amount is, however, about $500. The fellowships are bestowed according to merit and usually without restriction as to the collegiate institution of which the candidate is a graduate. The holder is expected to pursue graduate work in some special department to which the fellowship is attached, and in most cases this work is to be done at the institution which grants it. Occasionally, however, the fellow is allowed or even required to travel. Some institutions require certain services in connection with instruction from the holders of fellowships, others expect their time to be devoted to study. In 1911 there were 272 fellowships in 13 lead

ing institutions of the country-California, Chicago, Clark, Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, Johns Hopkins, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Princeton, Virginia, Wisconsin, Yale-of a total value of $139,250.

Probably the most valuable fellowships are the Kahn traveling fellowships awarded in England, Germany, France, Russia, Japan, and America and of the annual value of $3000, for the purpose not so much of promoting academic research as international comity through a better understanding and appreciation of foreign conditions. For the current status of fellowships in various institutions, consult: The Handbook of Graduate Clubs (Chicago); College YearBook (New York, 1896 et seq.); Minerva Jahrbuch der Gelehrten Welt (Strassburg, 1892 et seq.). See UNIVERSITY.

FELL THAM, OWEN (c.1602-68). An English author. He was born in Suffolk and was connected with the household of the Earl of Thomond, at Great Billing, Northamptonshire. An enthusiastic Royalist, his boundless devotion, innocent of euphemistic intent, prompted him to call the dead Charles I "Christ the Second." His name has survived in literature as the author of a thoughtful and agreeable series of moral essays entitled Resolves, written "to hold himself and others within the limits of prudence, honor, and virtue" (1st ed., 100 essays, c.1620; 2d ed., 200 essays, 1628; 4th ed., 1631, reprinted by W. Pickering, London, 1846). He also wrote A Brief Character of the Low Coun tries (1652), which was incorporated with the eighth edition of the Resolves.

FE'LO DE SE (ML., traitor to himself). In criminal law, the technical description for a self-murderer, a suicide. As defined by Blackstone, "A felo de se, therefore, is he that deliberately puts an end to his own existence, or commits any unlawful act, the consequence of which is his own death" (Comm., iv, 189). For legal consequence of self-murder, see SUI

CIDE.

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FEL'ON (OF. felon, felun, fellon, Fr. felon, ML. felo, fello, wicked man, from OF. fel, It. fello, wicked, from Gael. feallan, Bret. falloni, teachery, Ir. feal, evil; connected with Lat. fallere, to deceive, Gk. opáλer, sphallein, to fall, Skt. phal, to deceive, OHG. fallan, Ger. fallen, Icel. falla, AS. feallan, Eng. fall), or PARONYCHIA. A whitlow; properly, a painful inflammation (generally suppurative) around the nail or at the matrix or root of the nail. monly, however, the term is applied to a suppurative circumscribed inflammation anywhere on the fingers or thumbs. If superficial, the inflammatory process may undermine the epidermis only; if deep, it may burrow under the sheath of a tendon or under the periosteum. Pathologically felon is a cellulitis, and it is due, in people of reduced resistive power, to an injury, such as a puncture, cut, or scratch, followed by infection of the wound with pus germs. Pain is a prominent symptom, with tenderness on pressure, heat, throbbing, and much tension. If amelioration does not appear before pus is present, under treatment with rest, elevation, and applications of hot-water compresses, incisions must be made so as to release the exudate. Pus generally appears in 48 hours after infection. The incisions must generally be deep and occasionally multiple. A joint of the finger has been lost through delay after pus has appeared. To avoid contraction and stiffness as the cicatrix

forms, the finger or hand must in some cases be supported on a splint.

FELONY. In the common-law classification of crimes, the second in atrocity and in importance, the first being treason, and the one comprehending all minor offenses being mis demeanors. Omitting treason (which, though sometimes classed as a felony, really stands by itself in our legal system), the distinction be tween felonies and misdemeanors corresponds roughly to that between grave offenses and such as are less heinous in character. But the distinction is a purely artificial one. Our law has never made a classification of crimes which was based on their inherent nature, but has had reference in its divisions rather to the kind of punishment inflicted. A felony was any crime punishable by forfeiture of the criminal's lands, or goods, or both. Blackstone adds that capital or other punishment might be superadded to the forfeiture, according to the degree of guilt, and in England, for a long time, most felonies were punishable by death. But at common law forfeiture was always an essential part of the penalty, and punishment by death was never the true criterion. In England important statutory changes in the laws as to forfeiture (33 and 34 Vict., c. 23, 1870) have taken away the practical utility of the former test of a felony. But those crimes are still held to be felonies and misdemeanors respectively which were so when the test was operative. Many crimes have been expressly declared felonies by the statutes creating them. Even in the absence of such declaration all crimes for which by statute the penalty of death may be decreed are there held to be felonies. In some of the United States the distinction between felonies and misdemeanors is practically discarded, the punishment for each particular crime being prescribed by statute, and the word "felony," if used at all, being employed in a loose and indefinite sense. In other States the distinction is retained by statute and made to depend on the kind of punishment. Thus, in a considerable number, statutes have declared that crimes punishable by death or by imprisonment in the State prison shall be felonious. In those States it is sufficient to constitute felony that those penalties may be imposed, though the court or jury may be given power to inflict a less severe punishment or to suspend sentence. See CRIME; INFAMOUS CRIME.

An Amer

FELS, fělz, JOSEPH (1854-1914). ican manufacturer and single-tax advocate. born at Halifax Court House, Va. After four years as a traveling salesman for manufacturers of soap he undertook in 1874 the manufacture of this commodity at Baltimore with his father, under the firm name of Fels & Co. Later the business was transferred to Philadelphia. Having amassed a great fortune. Fels became an ardent advocate of single-tax reforms, for the promotion of which he estab lished the Joseph Fels Fund of America: to this he contributed $125,000, and to similar funds in Denmark, Germany, France, Spain, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada he subscribed generously. He also introduced profit sharing in his factories, backed single-tax colonies near Mobile, Ala., and Arden, Del., and established a labor colony at Hollesley Bay, England. As a lecturer and as a magazine contributor, he promoted the single-tax propaganda by his personal efforts.

He

FELSINA. See BOLOGNA, History. FELSING, fěl'zing, GEORGE JAKOB (1802-83). A German engraver, born at Darmstadt. studied under his father, Johann Konrad Felsing, and under Giuseppe Longhi at the Academy of Milan, where he won the first prize in 1828 with his "Christ on the Mount of Olives," after Carlo Dolci. He was later influenced by Raphael Morghen and was noted for the accuracy with which he produced the peculiar characteristics of paintings which he engraved, particularly those of the Düsseldorf school. Among his finest engravings may be mentioned: Correggio's "Marriage of St. Catharine"; Raphael's "Violin Player"; Overbeck's "Holy Family"; "Salvator Mundi" (after Da Vinci); "Hagar and Ishmael" (after Köhler); "Jeremiah on the Ruins of Jerusalem" (after Bendemann); "Christ Taken Prisoner" (after Hofmann); and "Poetry and Love" (after Kaulbach). He was an honorary member of the academies of Milan and Florence and of the French Institute.

FELSITE (from Ger. Fels, rock). A name applied to the dense igneous rocks which have a stony texture with a fairly light color, and which require the use of the microscope to determine their mineral nature. It is a convenient general term for the classification of rocks in the field and is now used as such, although it was formerly applied in a more restricted sense to the fine-grained equivalents of the quartz porphyries. According to present usage felsite may mean any of the dense volcanic or dike rocks which correspond to granite, syenite, or diorite among the coarsely crystallized class. Thus, basalts and diabases are not included. If a felsite contains scattered crystals of recognizable minerals (phenocrysts), it is known as a felsite porphyry, or leucophyre. Felsites occur in the form of dikes, sheets, and as surface lava flows, the latter often covering many hundreds of square miles. They are found along the Appalachians from Maine southward, also in the Rocky Mountain and Coast ranges, and elsewhere in regions of volcanic activity.

FELT (OHG. filz, Ger. Filz, OChurch Slav. plusti, felt; probably connected with OHG. falz, Ger. Falz, fold). A fabric formed without weaving by taking advantage of the natural tendency of the fibres of hair and wool to interlace with and cling to each other. As to the origin of the knowledge of felt making, its beginnings antedate by many centuries the Christian era, and the fabric is mentioned by the earliest writers. In fact, St. Clement is the patron saint of the felt makers, since he was said to have put carded wool between his feet and the soles of his sandals at the beginning of a journey and found it transformed into cloth at its end. On account of greater simplicity of its structure, it is probable that felt was made long before the art of producing cloth by spinning and weaving had been discovered.

The felting quality of fibres of hair or wool results from their structure. When examined by the microscope, the hair of all animals is found to be more or less jagged or notched on its surface; in some animals it is distinctly barbed; and this structure is so directed that the teeth or barbs all point towards the tip of the hair. If a piece of human hair (in which this structure is less marked than in most animals) be held between the finger and thumb, and rubbed in the direction of its length, it will invariably move between the fingers in the di

rection of its root; for the skin, while moving towards the tip of the hair, slides freely upon it, but, moving in the other direction, against the inclination of the barbs, it brings the hair with it. It will be easily understood that when a number of hairs are pressed together those which lie in opposite directions to each other and in contact will interlock at these barbs or teeth and thus resist any effort to tear them asunder. When once this close contact and interlocking is established between any two or more hairs, they remain attached, but the others that are differently arranged, or not in contact, will still be free to move upon each other; and therefore, if subjected to continual blows, pushing, and pressure, the unattached hairs will be continually shifting until they reach others in suitable positions for clinging together, either by crossing obliquely or by ly ing in the same line and overlapping at their ends or any other portion. When the hair has a natural tendency to curl, the felting is still more readily brought about by the additional interlacing. Although the felting property is possessed in a preeminent degree by wool, it belongs to the hair or fur of other animals, including the goat, ox, hare, rabbit, and beaver.

The first mechanical process for the production of felt was invented by J. R. Williams, an American, about 1820. Many patents have since been taken out for the various details of felting machinery, but the main principle is the same in all. The wool is carded more or less perfectly into laps of the length and breadth of the web to be made. One layer of these laps is placed upon another to secure the desired thickness of the fabric, and the two outside layers are often of a finer quality than the interior. The bulky sheet is now passed between rollers which are partly immersed in water, and some of them are heated internally with steam. The material is subjected to a beating and oscillatory motion as well as to pressure. The completed fabric is dyed and finished like ordinary cloth. The details of manufacture were at one time strictly guarded trade secrets, each factory having its own processes and specially made machinery.

Felt is used for many purposes. It is employed as a covering for floors and as an upholsterer's material. It is made up not only into hats, but into cloaks and other garments. Carriage linings, polishing cloths, pianoforte hammers, surgical dressings, and many other objects requiring a soft, thick cloth are made from felt. The felt used for women's hats is cut from the piece, but that employed in the manufacture of men's hats is made in special shapes. The material used for men's hats is usually the fur of raccoons, beavers, or rabbits, mixed with some good felting wool. See HATS.

Various fabrics which are technically known as felt, and which possess in greater or less degree the qualities of this material, are manufactured for use in different industries. In these coarse grades of felt cow's hair is often an important ingredient. The felted sheathing used as a nonconducting covering for retaining the heat of steam boilers is a substance intermediate between felt and paper. It is made from woolen refuse and other cheap materials reduced to pulp, beaten and dried. Lining and roofing felts are used in the construction of buildings and act as nonconductors of heat and sometimes of moisture and sound. Such felts

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