only party office ever held by him was that of Congressman, which he occupied by appointment for a short time in 1876 to fill a vacancy. Though distinguished in many ways, his fame rests chiefly on his achievements as a law reformer, in which field of high and disinterested service he occupies a foremost place. Many of his principal papers on law reform are included in his Speeches, Arguments, and Miscellaneous Papers (New York, 1884-90). FIELD, EUGENE (1850-95). An American poet and journalist, born in St. Louis, Mo. During several years of his childhood he lived in Massachusetts and Vermont, and, though he completed his collegiate education in Missouri, he showed in his work traces of New England and Western elements which coexisted rather than blended in his nature. At 23 he began newspaper work, and 10 years afterward he became associated with the Chicago Daily News, with which he was for 12 years identified through his column "Sharps and Flats." Far the largest part of his literary production first appeared here. It is of varied manner and quality, prose and verse, detached paragraphs and continued, narratives, by turns quaint, grotesque, delicate, Rabelaisian, farcical, and pathetic. He seemed to have equal sympathy with the wild life of the prairie and with classic culture, for irresponsible Bohemian life and quiet domestic felicities. He is probably most widely known as a poet of childhood, but most admired as a humorist. His first publication, The Denver Tribune Primer (1882; reprinted in 1901 as The Tribune Primer), is one of the cherished rarities of the book collector. A Little Book of Western Verse (1889) and A Little Book of Profitable Tales (1889) are characteristic of his best original literary achievement. Echoes from the Sabine Farm (1893), in which he collaborated with his brother, R. M. Field, shows how fully he had absorbed the spirit of Horace. The Love Affairs of a Bibliomaniac contains his most delicately humorous essays; With Trumpet and Drum (1892) and Poems of Childhood (1904) well represent him as a children's poet. Several of his poems have been set to music, some of which may be found in Musical Poems for School, Kindergarten, and Home; music by Caro S. Seymour (1906). Consult Thompson, Eugene Field: A Study in Heredity and Contradictions (2 vols., New York, 1901). FIELD, FREDERICK (1801-85). An English clergyman, born in London. He graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1823, became fellow of Trinity (1824), and was rector of Reepham, Norfolk, from 1842 to 1863. His scholarship was a rare combination of Greek and Semitic. He edited the Greek text of St. Chrysostom's Homilies on Saint Matthew (1839); St. Chrysostom's Interpretation of the Pauline Epistles (7 vols., in Bibliotheca Patrum, 1845-62); the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, according to the Alexandrian codex (subsequently revised and rearranged for the Foreign Translation Committee of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge); and Origen's Hexapla (2 vols., 1867-75). In 1870 he became a member of the Old Testament revision company. Consult the brief autobiography in his preface to Origen. FIELD, GEORGE WILTON (1863- ). An American biologist, born at North Bridgewater, Mass. In 1887 he graduated from Brown University (A.M., 1890), where he was later as sociate professor of cellular biology (1893-96), having in the meantime studied also at Johns Hopkins University (Ph.D., 1892), at the Naples Zoological Station, and in Munich. He was biologist of the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station from 1896 to 1901, instructor in economic biology at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1902), and in 1903 became biologist, and in 1904 chairman, of the Massachusetts Commission on Fisheries and Game. He became a director of the Massachusetts Audubon Society and in 1911 was president of the National Shellfish Association. His publications consist of reports and papers on original biological investigations and also Lobsters and the Lobster Problem (1910). Then, FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907). An American clergyman, editor, and author, born at Stockbridge, Mass., a son of Rev. David Dudley Field and brother of the jurist of that name, as well as of Justice Stephen J. Field and Cyrus W. Field. He graduated at Williams (1838), studied theology, and from 1842 to 1847 was pastor of a church in St. Louis. after three years of European travel, he became pastor of a church in West Springfield, Mass. (1851-54). After this he took up his residence in New York as editor and later, till 1890, as sole proprietor of the Evangelist, an influential Presbyterian paper, visiting Europe frequently, and making a tour of the world in 1877. His numerous volumes are chiefly stories of travel. Of these From the Lakes of Killarney to the Golden Horn (1876), On the Desert (1883), and Old Spain and New Spain (1888) are typical. He also wrote a life of his brother, David Dudley Field (1898), and Story of the Atlantic Telegraph (1878; 1903). FIELD, JOHN (1782-1837). An English composer, born in Dublin. He was the immediate precursor and probable model of Chopin and the modern school of pianoforte composition. Field came of musical stock. His father was a violinist, and his grandfather, of whom he took his first lessons, an organist. Subsequently, when the family removed to London, he was apprenticed to Clementi, who then had a pianoforte business, and who, recognizing the youth's remarkable gifts, taught him and employed him to show off pianofortes to customers. With Clementi he went in 1802 on an extended concert tour, visiting Paris, Germany, and Russia, where his pianoforte playing was greatly admired. On a second visit to St. Petersburg in 1804 he remained there as a much admired teacher and virtuoso. He did not return to London until 1832, appearing there most successfully in concert. A subsequent tour in Italy proved a failure. Under the effects of disappointment and dissipation he broke down at Naples, where, nine months later, he was taken out of the hospital by a Russian family with whom he returned to Moscow. But he never recovered his health, and died in Moscow. Field's works that have survived are his Nocturnes. They were the first successful efforts at composition unrestrained by classical form and offering the composer freedom of poetic fancy. In their name, their romantic and subjective treatment, as well as in their technical aspect, they clearly indicate the starting point of Chopin and of the modern romantic school. His works include 7 concertos (No. 4 of which was the most popular), 4 sonatas, 2 airs en rondeau, 4 romances, 18 nocturnes, and numerous other pieces of kindred type. An essay on Field by Liszt and reminiscences of him in Spohr's autobiography will be found interesting. Consult H. Dessauer, John Field, sein Leben und seine Werke (Langensalza, 1912). FIELD, JOSEPH M. (1810-56). An American actor and dramatist. He was born in London, came to America when very young, and for several years traveled through the country writing plays and acting them without attaining much reputation. In 1852 he assumed the management of a theatre in St. Louis, Mo., where he was also later principal owner and an editor of the Reveille, a daily newspaper. At the same time he became widely known for his humorous sketches signed "Straws" in the New Orleans Picayune. FIELD, KATE (c.1840-96). An American journalist, lecturer, and actress, of eccentric talent. She was born in St. Louis, Mo., the daughter of Joseph M. Field (q.v.), was educated in New England and in England, and prolonged her stay in Europe as correspondent of various American newspapers, writing also for magazines. On her return she gave lectures and public readings and in 1874 appeared as Peg Woflington at Booth's Theatre, New York. She afterward abandoned the regular comedy for dance, song, and recitation, but achieved no striking success. In 1882-83 she headed a Cooperative Dress Association in New York, which achieved a conspicuous failure. In 1889 she established Kate Field's Washington, a weekly journal published in the capital. After 1868 she published numerous volumes of miscellaneous contents, no longer noteworthy. FIELD, MAGNETIC. See MAGNETISM; DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINERY. FIELD, MARSHALL (1835-1906). An American merchant, born in Conway, Mass. In 185660 he was clerk in Chicago in a wholesale drygoods establishment, in which he was a junior partner from 1860 to 1865. In 1865 he became a member of the firm of Field, Palmer, and Leiter, which, in 1881, became Marshall Field and Company. Under his direction the firm obtained the largest wholesale and retail drygoods business in the world, with headquarters in Chicago and branches in France, Germany, and England. He gave to the University of Chicago land valued at $200,000, with a gift of $1,000,000 founded in Chicago the Field Columbian Museum as a permanent repository for many exhibits of the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893, and bequeathed $8,000,000 for the endowment and maintenance of the museum upon the expressed condition that within six years after his death there should be provided, without cost to it, a suitable site. FIELD, MICHAEL. The pseudonym of two English women collaborators, the Misses Katherine Bradley (d. 1914) and Edith Emma Cooper (d. 1913), who wrote several poetic dramas and many lyrics. Among the most popular of their publications were: Callirrhoë and Fair Rosamond (1884); The Father's Tragedy (1885); Canute the Great (1887): The Tragic Mary (1890); Long Ago (1889); Sight and Song (1892); Under the Bough (new ed., 1893); Attila, my Attila! (1895); Anna Ruina (1899); The Race of Leares (1901). FIELD, RICHARD (1561-1616). A Church of England divine. He was born at Hemel Hempstead, Hertfordshire, Oct. 15, 1561, and graduated B.A. at Oxford in 1581. After a brilliant university career as instructor and scholar, he became in 1594 rector of Burghclere, Hampshire, and there and at Windsor, where he was a prebendary after 1604, he chiefly resided thenceforth. In 1610 he was made dean of Gloucester. He attended the famous Hampton Court Conference in 1603 and enjoyed the special favor of King James. His fame rests upon his great work, Of the Church (London, 1606; modern ed., 1853), one of "the grandest monuments of po lemical divinity in the language." His son prepared a Life, which was edited by Le Neve in 1716. FIELD, STEPHEN DUDLEY (1846-1913). An American inventor, born at Stockbridge, Mass. Besides many minor patents, his inventions include a multiple-call distance-telegraph box (1874), an electric elevator (1878), a dynamo quadruplex telegraph (1880), and a fast stock ticker (1884). Field was the first to apply dynamo machines to telegraphy (1879) and also the first to use the quadruplex telegraph on an ocean cable (1909). FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-99). A dis tinguished American judge, born in Haddam, Conn., in 1816. He was the second son of the Rev. David Dudley Field (q.v.). At the age of 13 young Field made a voyage to the East in company with a brother-in-law, who was a missionary, and he spent three years in Smyrna and Athens. Returning to this country, he graduated at Williams College, in 1837, with the highest honors. He then studied law in the office of his brother in New York City and, after his admission to the bar, became his brother's partner and devoted himself energeti cally to the practice of law until 1848, when he went abroad and passed a year in Europe. On his return, in 1849, he joined the tide then setting towards California and established him self there, at a place where now stands the city of Marysville. He was elected the first alcalde of the place, holding the office until the organiza tion of the judiciary under the constitution of the State. Under Mexican law an alcalde had a very limited jurisdiction, but after the Ameri can occupation the jurisdiction exercised by him in the anomalous condition of society in Cali fornia at that time was practically unlimited. In 1850 he was elected to the Legislature and was placed on the Judiciary Committe”. drew up a bill defining the powers of the courts of justice and judicial officers of the He State, which was passed, and most of its provisions are still retained in the California code He also secured the passage of a law giving effect to the usages and regulations adopted by the miners for the protection and working of the mines. The principles embodied in this law were adopted in other mining regions of the country, and finally by act of Congress became the mining law of the United States territories. In 1857 he was elected Judge of the Supreme Court of California, and in 1859 he succeeded David S. Terry as Chief Justice. When Mr. Field came to the bench, the titles to lands in the State were unsettled, and it was largely through the decisions in which he delivered the opinions of the court that the law of real property in Cali. fornia was placed on a permanent basis. 1863 he was appointed by President Lincoln an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, a position which he held with increasing distinction until his retirement by Here he played a conspicuous and important role, expressing himself reason of age in 1897. in with great force and freedom on all the great constitutional questions which came before the court for consideration during his long term of service, and being intrusted by the court with the duty of preparing many of its most important opinions. His opinions in the celebrated test-oath cases, in which the Supreme Court declared the invalidity of the "ironclad oath" imposed by act of Congress on all persons holding office under the government of the United States, and his dissenting opinions in the legaltender, slaughterhouse, and income-tax cases were distinct contributions to American constitutional law and have become justly celebrated. In 1869 he was appointed professor of law in the University of California; in 1873, as one of a commission to examine and revise the codes of the State, he prepared important amendments which were adopted by the Legislature. He was a member of the famous electoral commission of 1877 which decided the presidency in favor of Rutherford B. Hayes, and he voted with the minority in favor of Samuel J. Tilden. As a judge, Field was noted for his independence of judgment and the strength of his convictions, as well as for the sanity and reasonableness of his views. He was a learned lawyer, but it was the breadth of his information and the range of his experience as well as the vigor of his mind which contributed most to his judicial equipment. His service on the bench of the Supreme Court, 34 years, the longest in the history of that tribunal, was also one of the most useful in its history. FIELD ARTILLERY. The artillery which accompanies an army in the field. It may be classified as follows: (1) Light Field Artillery (guns of about 3-inch calibre; howitzers, 3.8 to 4.7-inch); (2) Heavy Field Artillery (guns, 4.7-inch; howitzers, 6-inch); (3) Special Purpose. Artillery: (a) Mountain or Pack Artillery (calibre about 3-inch); (b) Horse Artillery (calibre about 3-inch). Calibres above 6-inch, used in siege operations, are classified as Siege Artillery guns, howitzers, or mortars. The development of field artillery and the field gun will be found in the historical sketch under ARTILLERY (q.v.), while under HORSE ARTILLERY, HOWITZER, LIGHT ARTILLERY, MOUNTAIN OR PACK ARTILLERY, and SIEGE ARTILLERY, these special branches will be considered. The present description is concerned with the modern field gun which is, indeed, a development of but a few years, but which played a most important part in the great European war of 1914. The present quick-firing field gun, which permits the gun layer to maintain his position and sight on the target during the entire process of loading and firing, is the natural consequence of the introduction of smokeless powder. With the old ordnance the target was obscured by the smoke of discharge, and until this blew away the gun could not be re-laid. With the advent of smokeless powder, however, it was possible to keep the target in view, and some mechanical means by which the process of gun laying might be made continuous became a matter of concern. The solution was found in the hydraulic buffer or brake, and the stored energy by which the gun is returned to its firing position. This system was first utilized by the builders of naval ordnance, who introduced guns on this principle as a means of defense against the attack of small craft. (See GUNS, NAVAL.) It was not long, however, before the possibilities of this weapon VOL. VIII.-34 were recognized by army artillerists, for we find General Wille, in his Field Gun of the Future (Berlin, 1891), and General Langlois, in his great work Field Artillery in Connection with the Other Arms (Paris, 1892), advocating a gun and principles which have since been largely realized in the field gun as we now know it. The first practical application of the principles laid down by these writers was made in the new matériel of the French artillery, which made its appearance in 1898. This matériel and the methods prescribed for its use were so immeasurably ahead of anything else then in existence that they may be said to have revolutionized the subject of field artillery. All other nations were compelled to rearm with a somewhat similar equipment, and to copy, to a greater or less extent, the new tactics of the French. It was not, however, without opposition, especially in Germany and England, that these methods were incorporated into the training of their armies, and as late as 1914 Germany prohibited the use of the covered position in many situations where it would have been employed unhesitatingly by the French or American artillerist. Description of Light Field Gun. The modern light field gun, to which falls the bulk of mobile artillery work, is approximately 3 inches calibre (3.3 inches in England); about 30 calibres long, i.e., 30 times the diameter of the bore, and weighs, with its carriage (unlimbered), from 2000 to 2500 pounds; when limbered (limber filled with ammunition), the weight varies from 3900 to 4500 pounds. The latter figure is the weight of the British 18pounder, which fires the heaviest projectile of all modern light artillery guns. The gun proper ordinarily consists of a steel tube, over which is shrunk a jacket with the necessary locking hoop, and recoil lugs or clasps by which the gun is secured to the cradle. The jacket usually contains the recess for the breech block. This may be of the wedge type, in which the block slides transversely across the breech end of the gun, or the interrupted or stepped screw system, in which the block swings about a hinge pin and is locked to the gun by means of screw threads on both block and breech recess which are engaged by the rotation of the block. The former type is used by Krupp, while the latter system has been adopted by practically all other makers. Material. Steel is now the only metal used in gun construction. Bronze was formerly much in favor, but Austria, the last nation to employ this substance, decided in 1912 to change to steel for all future manufactures. Carriage. The carriage of the modern field gun is made almost entirely of steel and consists of the lower or traveling carriage (axle, trail, and wheels), the rocker, and the cradle. The rocker is simply a frame upon which the cradle is supported, and by means of which it is elevated or moved in direction so as to bring the gun upon the target. The cradle serves as a bed for the gun and as a housing for the recoil mechanism. Recoil. Modern artillery differs from that of former years in the important particular that while the gun recoils the traveling carriage remains fixed, so that the piece does not require repointing after each shot, and the cannoneer need not step aside, as was formerly required. This is accomplished by introducing a hydraulic buffer or brake, which absorbs the energy of recoil by means of the passage of the liquid through small ports or openings in the piston. At the end of recoil the gun is returned to its firing position by compressed air or by springs which have been compressed during the recoil. The former method, originally the secret of the French artillery, has been used in the guns manufactured by Schneider and Company for the Spanish, Servian, and Bulgarian artillery, and gave excellent service in both north Africa and the Balkans. The spring column is used in the product of Krupp, and in the American, English, German, and many other guns. The objection to this system is the tendency of the springs to lose their resiliency, and, moreover, they sometimes break. No trouble with the compressed-air system is known, and it is generally more favorably regarded by artillerists. Ammunition. The ammunition carried by modern field artillery consists of shrapnel, shell, and a composite projectile combining the properties of these two and variously described as combined shrapnel, high-explosive shrapnel, and universal shell. Great Britain, alone of the first-class powers, so late as 1914 carried nothing but common shrapnel with her light field guns, but, judging from comments in British prints, she, too, was likely to equip her field artillery with either shell or combined shrapnel. See AMMUNITION; SHRAPNEL; SHELL; PROJECTILES. Propelling Charge. The propelling charge for the light field gun consists of approximately 11⁄2 pounds of smokeless nitrocellulose powder. See EXPLOSIVES. Ranging. Two general methods are used to determine the range to the hostile target. The first, the one in which artillerists have placed their greatest faith, consists of a process of ranging, or, more properly speaking, adjusting, since the length of fuse to explode the shrapnel or shell, and, in the case of indirect aiming, the deflection angles, must be determined as well as the range to the target. In this system the target is bracketed between two groups of shots, one of which is surely short of the target and the other surely beyond. The bracket thus obtained (usually 400 yards or meters) is reduced by halving until in most cases a 100-yard bracket is obtained. In the case of percussion fire the bracket is reduced to 50, or even 25 yards at the shorter ranges. During the ranging series the deflection angle and corrector are changed until the group of shots is brought to burst in air close to the ground and directly in line with their proper part of the target, so that the latter will be hidden by or silhouetted against the smoke produced by the bursting of the shrapnel. Thus, according to the United States regulations, a battery would open fire against a hostile battery, using the indirect method (sights directed on an auxiliary mark or aiming point) with a deflection of say 2000 mils, a deflection difference of -10, corrector 25, and range 3000 yards. The shots of the salvo are observed to burst on percussion somewhat to the right of the target, which is measured (either by a graduated ruler, field glass, or telescope) and found to be 50 mils to the right. The four shots are also observed to burst on a front less than that of the target. The second Artillery angles are usually measured in mils (a contraction of milliemes, meaning thousandths). Thus, the chord subtending an angle of 1 mil is approximately 1% of the radius, or range. In order to make this ratio exact it would be necessary to divide the circle into 6283 divisions (2 Ħ × r). This number is not convenient for division, so 6400, which obviates this objection and gives a ratio approximating 1858. has been arbitrarily adopted. salvo would be fired with an increase of 50 in the deflection to bring the shots to the left, an increase of say 3 in the deflection difference in order to increase the width of the sheaf, and an increase of 5 in the corrector so as to get the burst into the air. Inasmuch as the first salvo burst considerably to the right of the target, it is not likely that the battery commander could have observed whether the range was "short" or "over," and he would probably repeat the range. Assume three of this second salvo to have burst in air and one on percussion, all short of and well distributed over the front of the target: for the next salvo the range would be increased 400 yards, the deflection, deflection difference, and corrector remaining unchanged. Suppose this to be over, and we have the 400-yard or long bracket; the next salvo would be fired with a range 200 yards less, which, if over, would cause a further reduction of 100 yards, which we will assume to be short, thus inclosing the target between 3100 and 3200. The corrector would be raised enough to give a burst 3 mils high (at which the maximum effect is obtained), and fire for effect is started with such speed and under such methods as the tactical situation and the ammunition supply suggest. For infantry in the open a 200-yard bracket would probably be the smallest that could be obtained, in which case fire for effect would be delivered at different ranges within this bracket. For cavalry, a larger bracket, 400 or 500 yards, would be appropriate. Registering the Terrain. Another method, countenanced largely by the French, consists of firing a number of shots with different deflertions and elevations, and, by noting and recording where they strike, a battery is prepared to turn loose a sudden fire for effect without the loss of time necessary for ranging. This is particularly appropriate in the case of rapidly moving targets which are likely to disappear from view before the process of ranging can be completed. Fire for Effect. Modern formations and tendencies towards concealment have given rise to the rafale or squall system of artillery fire, made possible by the rapid-fire gun and smokeless powder, in which each gun fires one or more rounds, as may be indicated in the commands. The French also use what they term progressive fire, in which each piece in the battery fires two rounds at each of four ranges, varying by 100 meters, all of which is executed at a single command, and the 32 shots are discharged in less than one minute. In progressive-fire sweeping three shots are fired at each range, thus covering an area of approximately 100,000 square meters with 48 shrapnel containing 13,916 balls, in less than 111⁄2 minutes. Progressive fire consumes great quantities of ammunition, and the French regulations have limited its use to the case of important fleeting target. This method, once taught in the United States artillery, has been abandoned in the regulations of 1911. Another method is to subject the hostile target to a continued rain of projectiles at a uniform interval of discharge. This practice is not much favored, for the reason that the enemy soon learns to time the shots and can seek shelter accordingly, as was actually done by the Japanese during the Manchurian War. These methods apply to shrapnel fire. As has been stated, the ammunition supply of field |