missioner. In 1910 the revenue (of which over half is derived from customs) and expenditure of the colony were £211,952 and £236,661 respectively; in 1912, £238,947 and £268,158. Public debt (1911), £93,515.

The population of Fiji has been returned by the census as follows: 1891, 121,180 (of whom 105,800 Fijians); 1901, 120,124 (94,397); 1911, 139,541 (87,096). It is to be noted that, while there was a considerable increase in the total population during the last decade, the native race continued to decline. It was estimated in 1868 at 170,000; by the epidemic of measles in 1875 it was reduced by more than one-fourth. In 1911 males numbered 80,008, and females 59,533. The total was made up as follows: Fijians, 87,096; Indians, 40,286 (17,105 in 1901); Europeans, 3707; half-castes, 2401; Polynesians, 2758; Rotumans, 2176; Chinese, 305; others, 812. The Wesleyan mission reported 84.306 adherents at the end of 1911, and the Roman Catholic mission 10,592. Native education is provided chiefly by these missions, the Wesleyan schools numbering 1002 and the Roman Catholic 124. Suva, the capital, on a fine harbor on the south coast of Viti Levu, had a white population of 1376.

While somatically the Fijians are in basic association with the Melanesian race, there are recognizable traces of Polynesian admixture. At least two such mixtures are readily identifiable. One is superficial and somewhat narrowly confined to the eastern district, which the island geography denominates Lau. This mixture is quite modern, the result of intercourse with the neighboring Tongans which there is evidence to restrict to the last three centuries. The other mixture is a more general factor in the race and is of wider extent, for it is as plainly to be seen in the mountaineers of the great island as in the coast people. It is manifest in the bodily measurements, for the Fijians in stature and proportions more closely approximate the Polynesians than they resemble such Melanesians as are established as of pure stock; yet in the minor bodily characters, such as pigmentation, hair section, contour of the outer ear, and interstitial measurement of skin pores, the Fijians show wholly Melanesian character. The period of the great contact of the two races which has established this mixture is not yet definitely determined, but it lies at one of the two great historic events in the Polynesian settlement of the Pacific-the later being the incoming of the later, or Tongafiti, branch of the race, concerning which Samoan history establishes the last period in the expulsion of the Tongafiti in the onfall of Matamatame about 700 years ago. The earlier period of Fijian mixture lies at least 1000 years earlier. Present research into the problem will probably result in the establishment of the earlier date. The language betrays the double origin, the vocabulary having drawn very largely upon Polynesian, the grammar being of Melanesian complexity and precision. The Fijians have taken from the Polynesians the use of kava, have given to them (according to Samoan testimony) the art of tattooing, practice the Melanesian art of pottery with no little success, are cautious navigators, and excel in canoe building. In social condition they fell far below the Polynesians: for the power of the chiefs, while enormous in the individual, lacked the he reditary quality by which families become great. Cannibalism was practiced with great gastro

nomic delight and remained in the most frequent use down to the annexation to Great Britain, and even as late as 1892 appeared in a sporadic recrudescence of the ancient habit. In the savage state the Fijians were constantly engaged in wars, yet the casualty list was insignificant. The decline in their numbers began with the suppression of this exit for their animal spirits, with the interruption of their polygamy entailing a greater infant mortality, particularly with the introduction of alien diseases to a field in which protective immunization had not been acquired. The picture of the vital statistics is not yet a satisfactory one, but at each of the census periods there is observable a decrease in the rate of mortality which leads to the hope that the people will before long take the upward track.

Some of the islands of the Fiji group were discovered by Tasman in 1643 and visited by Cook in 1773, who discovered several others in the same group. The first accurate knowledge of the archipelago was obtained through the explorations of Dumont d'Urville in 1827 and of the American expedition under Wilkes and Hale (1840-42). Though fugitive convicts from Australia settled in Viti Levu as early as 1804, the European population grew very little, owing to the hostility of the natives, who were numerous, warlike, and addicted to cannibalism. Wesleyan missionaries reached the islands in 1835 and in 1854 succeeded in converting not only Thakombau, the most powerful of the native chiefs, but the mass of the people also. Complications with the United States led Thakombau to offer the sovereignty over the islands to Great Britain (1858). The proposal was declined. Between 1860 and 1869 immigration was rapid, 1800 settlers being there in the latter year. An attempt to establish a parliamentary government under Thakombau did not prove successful, and the offer to Great Britain was renewed and accepted (1874). In 1878, when sugar began to be extensively cultivated, the native Fijians began to deteriorate because of the competition of the coolies from India. In 1900 an attempt made by New Zealand to add the Fijis to herself failed because the Colonial Secretary would not sanction it. Consult: Agassiz, "The Islands and Coral Reefs of Fiji," in Museum of Comparative Zoology Bulletin, vol. xxxiii (Cambridge, 1899 › ; Cumming, At Home in Fiji (London, 1887); Guppy, Observations of a Naturalist in the Pacific (ib., 1903); The Australian Handbook (Melbourne, 1913); Quarterly Review, vol. ccxvi, pp. 55-78 (London, 1912); Thompson, Fiji: Past and Present (Melbourne, 1899); Grimshaw, Fiji and its Possibilities (New York, 1907); Thomson, The Fijians: A Study in the Decay of Custom (London, 1908); Churchill, The Polynesian Wanderings (Washington, 1911).

FILAN'DER. See KANGAROO.

FILANGIERI, fēʼlàn-jyā'rê, GAETANO (173288). An Italian jurist, author of a monumental treatise, La scienza della legislazione. Born in Naples, of a noble family, he was trained for a military career, which he soon abandoned for legal and scientific studies. When barely 20, he published his first work, Public and Private Education. Among his early successes as a lawyer was an able defense of a royal decree, which won him the appointment of court advo cate and led to various other offices and honors. from the King. The first three parts of his principal work appeared in 1780-83 and incurred

the censure of the Catholic church. Ferdinand IV, however, rewarded the author with a pension and relieved him from all his court duties. The Scienza della legislazione (1780-88), which was to have consisted of seven books, but remains incomplete, was evidently written under the influence of Montesquieu, but shows the effects of Vico, Giannone, and Rousseau. It has the defect, characteristic of the century, of subordinating empirical research to deduction from philosophical principles and is somewhat colored by local problems of Neapolitan government; but this great work is still of use.

His son, CARLO (1784-1867), Prince of Satriano, was born in Naples. He entered the French army, was made a captain at Austerlitz, and fought in Spain with Murat. In 1849 he became Viceroy of Sicily under Ferdinand II, and he was made Minister of War by Francis II in 1859. He held this office for one year, when he fell from power, and did not again enter politics.

FILARETE, fē'lå-rā'tâ, ANTONIO (called also ANTONIO AVERULINO) (c.1400–70). A Florentine sculptor of the Renaissance. He probably assisted Ghiberti on the doors of the baptistery at Florence and was engaged by Pope Eugene IV to execute the bronze doors for St. Peter's in Rome (1433-45), now used for the central entrance of the church. His work is an inferior imitation of Ghiberti's masterpiece, but the reliefs are clumsy, the figures lifeless, and the subjects represented are a strange mixture of Christian and pagan thought. The figure of St. Mark over the entrance of San Marco is also attributed to him, as well as the tomb of the Cardinal of Portugal (except the effigy) in the Lateran, but without sufficient proof. He was afterward banished from Rome and was invited to visit Milan by Francesco Sforza, for whom he began the Ospedale Maggiore, but lived to complete only the right wing. He was one of the many architects employed on the cathedral at Milan and constructed the cathedral at Bergamo. He wrote a curious and interesting treatise on architecture, Trattato di architettura (146064), in which he described an ideal city, called Sforzinda. This work remained in manuscript until 1890, when it was published in Vienna. Consult Von Oettingen, "Leben und Werke des Antonio Averulino," in Beiträge zur Kunstgeschichte, new series, vol. vi (Leipzig, 1888); and especially Lazzaroni, Filarete, scultore et architetto del secolo XV (Rome, 1908).

FILA'RIA (from Lat. filum, thread). A parasite found in the blood, lymph, and other fluids of the human body. It was first seen by Demarquay, in 1863, in a fluid obtained from a galactocele, and was identified in 1866 by Wucherer of Brazil. In 1868 Salisbury found the eggs in human urine. In 1872 T. R. Lewis found filariæ in the blood. Filaria medinensis, or Guinea worm, is found in different tissues of the bodies of negroes in Guinea, Senegal, Egypt, Arabia, Persia, and India. It is from 1 to 10 feet long and about of an inch wide, and causes painful tumors, blisters, or boils, and sometimes gangrene. Filaria sanguinis hominis nocturna, which is about of an inch long, is found in the blood. It is indigenous to Africa, India, China, Australia, and Brazil, and has been found in negroes in our Southern States. "Craw-Craw," a West African skin disease, has been found to be associated with filariasis. In Filaria loa, also a West African dis

ease, the filaria wander through the subcutaneous tissues, especially of the face and eyes, producing inflammation. At least half of the natives of Samoa are said to be affected with filariasis. The parasite is transmitted by mosquitoes, as has been demonstrated by Manson and by Low. In Culex fastigans filaria embryos mature rapidly, after the insect has fed on the blood of a patient suffering from filariasis, and the perfect filariæ are found in the head, neck, and proboscis of the mosquito. Strong, of the Chief Surgeon's Office, Division of the Philippines, has found filariasis in Iloilo. He believes that the disease will become domesticated in the Southern States, through the return of the American soldiers. This form of filaria is a white, opaline, hairlike worm, tapering towards the ends, which are blunt. It is found only after sundown, appearing in the blood about 6 P.M. A diurnal variety has been discovered by Manson in Congo negroes. The nocturnal variety is found by day in the blood of patients who work by night and sleep by day. Granville advances the theory that the appearance in the blood of this parasite is dependent upon certain conditions of the circulation and of the chyle during sleep. Filariasis is limited between the parallels of lat. 30° N. and 30° S., unless transported by some one infected within the tropical limits. It is found in Brazil, many of the West Indies, in Mexico, and the west coast of South America, the South Sea Islands, Japan, Australia, and China, besides the countries already named as comprising the habitat of the Guinea worm. Parental forms of filaria cause several endemic diseases, including elephantiasis arabum, lymph scrotum, lymph vulva, chyluria, hæmatochyluria, and ascites. Consult: Wucherer, in Gazeta Medica da Bahia (Brazil, December, 1868); Lewis, in Medicinisches Centralblatt, No. 43 (Vienna, 1877); Manson, The Filaria Sanguinis Hominis (London, 1883); and Tropical Diseases (New York, 1907); Daniels, Tropical Medicine and Hygiene (ib., 1913).

FIL/BERT. See HAZELNUT.

FILDES, fildz, SIR LUKE (1844-1927). An English genre and portrait painter and illustrator, born in Liverpool. He studied in the South Kensington schools and the Royal Academy, made many drawings for the Cornhill Magazine, the London Graphic, and other periodicals, and illustrated the last work of Charles Dickens-Edwin Drood-and of Lever. He exhibited his first oil picture in the Royal Academy in 1872 "Fair, Quiet, and Sweet Rest." Fildes painted a series of large pictures of the life of the English people, such as "Return of the Penitent," "The Widower," and "The Poor of London." He seems peculiarly successful in depicting the hard and sordid experience of the London suffering poor. Well equipped technically, he portrays these scenes and situations with a realism that strongly impresses the beholder and with a great deal of manly sympathy. His vividly colored Venetian street scenes, with their groups of idealized women, such as "Venetian Life," and "An al-fresco Toilette" (1889), are also well known. Later he painted chiefly portraits, including the coronation portraits of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra and the state portrait of King George (1912). painting "The Doctor" (1891) is in the Tate Gallery, London. He was elected to the Royal Academy in 1887 and knighted in 1906. Consult his biography by Thomson (London, 1895).

His

ancient. Indeed, the file may be said to be represented in its earliest and crudest form by the rough stones used by prehistoric man in shaping his implements of war and of the chase. Artificially made files are mentioned in the Old Testament in 1 Sam. xiii. 21, and they are also mentioned in the Odyssey. These files were doubtless crude in form and very inefficient in operation compared with the modern tool of the same name; but the fact that they were mentioned in these early writings is proof of the consideration in which they were held by the metal workers of ancient times. The file has continued to be one of the most useful of hand tools for working metals and is to-day produced in enormous numbers and with an almost endless variety of forms and characteristics.

The modern file is a bar or rod of hardened steel having one end forged down to a long slim

reference not only to the character, but also to the relative degrees of coarseness of the teeth. The length of a file is the distance between its heel, or part of the file where the tang begins, and the point or end opposite. In general the length of files bears no fixed proportion either to their width or their thickness, even though they be of the same general shape or kind. By kind, in speaking of files, is meant the varied shapes or styles of files which are distinguished by certain technical names, as, e.g., flat, mill, and half-round. The various kinds of files are grouped according to the shape of their cross section into rectangular sections, circular sections, triangular sections, and miscellaneous

a gradually narrowing section extending from one-half to two-thirds the length of the file from the point. The term "blunt" designates a file that preserves its sectional shape throughout from point to tang. The cut of files is divided, with reference to the character of the teeth, into single cut, double cut, and rasp cut, and with reference to the coarseness of the teeth into rough, coarse, bastard, second cut, smooth, and dead smooth. The accompanying illustrations show all of these cuts. The rough-cut file is one in which a single unbroken course of chisel cuts is made across its surface, arranged parallel to each other, but oblique to the centre line or axis of the file. The double-cut file has two courses of chisel cuts crossing each other, the second course with rare exceptions being finer than the first. Rasp-cut differs from single or double cut in the respect that the teeth are disconnected from each other, each tooth being made by a single-pointed tool called a punch.

File teeth of any of the cuts described may be arranged so as to be spaced equidistant, or they may be arranged so that the spacing varies at different points of the file. When the latter arrangement is used, the files are designated as increment cut. The arrangement of the teeth in increment cut may be described as follows: 1. The rows of teeth are spaced progressively wider, from the point towards the middle of the file, by regular increments of spacing. 2. This general law of spacing is modified by introducing, as the teeth are cut, an element of controllable irregularity of spacing, which irregularity is confined within maximum and minimum limits, but is not a regular increment or decrement. 3. The teeth are so arranged that the successive rows shall not be exactly parallel, but cut slightly angularly with respect to each other, the angle or inclination being reversed during the operation of cutting as necessity requires.

The usual different sectional shapes of commercial files are shown in the accompanying illustration. In length such files range from 3 inches to 20 inches. Smaller files for jewelers, die sinkers, and watchmakers, and needle files are made of special material and in various special sizes. As indicating the small sizes in which files are produced, it may be noted that the smallest size of Nicholson round broach file is but 0.033 of an inch in diameter, and about 1 inch long.

Manufacture. Formerly, all files were handmade, the steel bar being forged to shape, ground smooth, and cut by hand tools. Most files are now made by machinery designed to perform all of these essential operations. The old method of hand cutting has a peculiar interest because of the deftness and skill required of the workman, and it will be described briefly for this reason, and also because it will help to explain the nature of the work required of modern file-cutting machinery. The following description is taken from Holtzapffel's Turning and Mechanical Manipulation:

"The first cut is made at the point of the file; the chisel is held in the hand at a horizontal angle of about 55° with the central line of the file, . . . and with a vertical inclination of about 12 to 14° from the perpendicular. . . . The blow of the hammer upon the chisel causes the latter to indent and slightly to drive forward the steel, thereby throwing up a trifling ridge or bur; the chisel is immediately replaced on the blank and slid from the operator, until it en

counters the ridge previously thrown up, which arrests the chisel or prevents it from slipping farther back and thereby determines the succeeding position of the chisel. The heavier the blow, the greater the ridge, and the greater the distance from the preceding cut at which the chisel is arrested. The chisel, having been placed in its second position, is again struck with the hammer, which is made to give the blows as nearly as possible of uniform strength; and the process is repeated with considerable rapidity and regularity, 60 to 80 cuts being made in one minute, until the entire length of the file has been cut with inclined, parallel, and equidistant ridges, which are collectively denominated the first course. So far as this one face is concerned, the file, if intended to be single cut, would be then ready for hardening. Most files, however, are double cut; that is, they have two series or courses of chisel cuts. In cutting the second course, the chisel is inclined vertically as before, at about 12°, but its edge only a few degrees from the transverse line of the file, or about 5° to 10° from the rectangle. The blows are now given a little less strongly, so as barely to penetrate to the bottom of the first cuts, and from the blows being lighter they throw up smaller burs, consequently the second course of cuts is somewhat finer than the first. The two series, or courses, fill the surface of the file with teeth, which are inclined towards the point of the file."

At first sight it would appear from the simplicity and continual repetition of the movements required in file cutting that it was an operation especially adapted to be performed by machinery. Nevertheless, it was not until many years after the first inventor of a file-cutting machine had patented his device that file-cutting machines were successfully used, and that machine-cut files could compete with the handmade product in the market. Among the notable inventors of file-cutting machines may be mentioned Duvesger (1699), Fardonet (1725), Thiout (1740), Brachal and Gamin (1765-78), Raoul (1800), Ericsson (1836), Robinson (1843), and Winton (1847). None of these machines was commercially successful. In 1865, however, Mr. W. T. Nicholson, of Providence, R. I., invented a file-cutting machine, which, as improved and modified from time to time, is now extensively used in the United States. About the same time M. Bernot, a Frenchman, devised a machine which proved commercially successful. Briefly described, the successful forms of file-cutting machines consist of a moving table on which the file blank is fixed, and which moves it progressively under a sort of trip-hammer arrangement carrying cutting chisels. In making machine-made files the bars of steel are first forged by hand or by machines and then ground smooth. The smoothed blank is then run through the cutting machine. The final process is to temper and harden the cut file.

Filing. To the uninitiated this may seem a simple operation of rubbing one piece of metal upon another, requiring only muscular strength and no skill. This is far from being the case, for a skillful workman will in a given time, with a given amount of muscular work, cut away a far greater quantity of metal with a file than one who is unskillful, for he makes every tooth cut into the work, instead of rubbing over it. To do this, he must adapt the pressure and

velocity of motion of the file to the coarseness of its teeth and the hardness, brittleness, and toughness of the material he is working upon. To file flat-i.e., to avoid rounding the sharp edges of a narrow piece of work-is very difficult, and some years of continual practice is required before an apprentice can do this well, especially in "smoothing up" or finishing work before polishing, and there are some who never succeed in filing, smoothing, and polishing without rounding the edges of fine work. The power to do this constitutes the main test of skill among mathematical-instrument makers and other metal workers. The flattest surface can be obtained by laying the work, where its form admits, upon a piece of cork held in the vise, and filing it with one hand; the pressure on the file being communicated by the forefinger. It is mainly to aid the workman in filing flat that the rounded or bellied form is given to files; this partially compensates the tendency of the hands to move in a curved line with its convexity upward when they move forward, and apply pressure, as in the act of filing. In draw filing the file is held in the fingers of both hands and moved so that the ridges of the teeth are nearly parallel to the direction of motion. This makes a long shearing cut along the surface filed, and no tooth marks are left.

FILE/FISH.

One of a family (Monacanthidae) of small tropical and semitropical fishes closely related to the plectognath trigger fishes (q.v.). The scales are very small and rough, giving the skin a velvety appearance and making it serviceable as a polishing material. The name refers to the filelike appearance of the stout dorsal spine, which is rough and armed behind with two rows of barbs. The type genus Monacanthus contains several species, but the best-known filefish is the "barnacle eater" (Alutera schopfi), which ranges northward to New England, may be 18 inches long, and has a "bright skin sometimes of an orange and sometimes of a tawny hue." It is a favorite object in aquariums. The habits of

DENTITION OF FILEFISH.

Palatal and profile view of the teeth.

the group are much the same as those of the trigger fishes (q.v.). See Plate of PLECTOGNATH FISHES.

FILELFO, fe-lel'fo (Lat. philelphus), FRANCESCO (1398-1481). An Italian humanist, born at Tolentino. He studied at Padua, and in 1417 was called to teach moral philosophy and eloquence at Venice. There he became distinguished as an expositor of the works of Vergil and Cicero, which then constituted the principal textbooks in his subjects. In 1419 he was ap

pointed secretary to the Venetian Consul at Constantinople, where he acquired an excellent knowledge of the Greek language and a valuable collection of Greek manuscripts. From 1427 he taught Latin and Greek at Bologna, Florence, and Siena, and from 1440 at Milan, where he was also attached to the court of the Duke, Filippo Visconti, as poet and orator. He wrote for the next Duke, Francesco Sforza, 12,800 lines of an epic known as the Sforziad. In 1475 he went to Rome, and in 1481 accepted the chair of Greek at Florence. He was neither a profound nor an accurate scholar, and his arrogance made him personally unpopular, but his energy did much to further the spirit of learning inspired by Petrarch. Consult Rosmini, Vita di Filelfo (Milan, 1808), and Symonds, The Renaissance in Italy (London, 1877).

In

FILE SHELL. A pholad. See PHOLAS. FILIATION (from Lat. filius, son). English and American law, a proceeding instituted for the judicial determination of the paternity of a person. It may be employed for the purpose of establishing legitimacy with reference to inheritance, or to determine the paternity of a bastard, in order to charge upon the father the support of his illegitimate offspring. In the United States the term is more commonly employed in the latter sense, as in the expression "filiation proceedings," for bastardy proceedings. See BASTARD; LEGITIMACY; PARENT AND CHILD.

FILIBUS'TERS (Sp. filibustero, from Fr. flibustier, fribustier, from Dutch crijbueter, vrij. buiter, freebooter, from vrij, free + buiter, from boete, Eng. boot, profit). The name once applied to a class of piratical adventurers in the West Indies during the seventeenth century (see BucCANEERS), but now generally used to designate any group or association of men who in disregard of international law forcibly intervene as private individuals in the affairs of any foreign state with which their own government is at the time on terms of peace. In American history the term is applied specifically to those citizens of the United States, or residents therein, who at various times in the nineteenth century intervened in the affairs of the West Indies or of Central or South America for the purpose of freeing colonies from Spanish domination or independent states from misgovernment, frequently with an underlying motive of securing the annexation of additional territory to the United States. and in many cases of extending the area of slavery and thus augmenting the influence of the "slave power" in governmental affairs. Aaron Burr planned to lead a great filibustering expedition into Mexico and Central America in 180607, and the independence of Texas, in 1836, was brought about in part by filibusters from the United States; but the most famous expeditions in American history were those of Lopez and Walker. Lopez, after making several fruitless attempts in 1850-51 to effect the liberation of Cuba, was finally, on Aug. 16, 1851, defeated, captured, and executed. Walker succeeded (1855) in overturning the government of Nicaragua, but quarreled with the native leaders and in 1857 was brought back to the United States by an American naval officer, to whom he had surrendered. He subsequently (1857-60) organized three more expeditions, each of which failed, and in September, 1860, was routed by the President of Honduras and summarily executed. (See LOPEZ, NARCISO; WALKER, WILLIAM.)