prised both public and private offerings. The regulations are set forth in the several codes of the Pentateuch. Taking these codes together, the regulations may be summarized as follows:

Of the public class there were three principal offerings. The first was at the opening of the corn harvest. On the day after the first day of the Passover, the 16th of the month Nisan, a sheaf of new corn, which was cut and gathered with much solemnity, was carried to the holy place and there waved before the altar (Lev. xxiii. 40 et seq.); nor was it permitted to commence the harvest work till after this solemn acknowledgment of the gift of fruitfulness. Again, at the Feast of Pentecost, seven weeks later, two loaves of leavened bread, made from the flour of the new harvest, were waved, with a similar form of worship, before the altar (Ex. xxxiv. 22; Lev. xxiii. 15-17). Thirdly, at the Feast of Tabernacles, in the seventh month, was held the great feast of the completed harvest, the final acknowledgment of the bounty of God in the fruits of the year (Ex. xxiii. 16; Lev. xxiii. 33-34).

Besides these public offerings of first fruits on the part of the entire people, individual Hebrews were bound to private offerings, each upon his own behalf. A cake of the first dough, one-twenty-fourth of the amount, was to be offered to the Lord (Num. xv. 21). The "first of all the fruits" were to be placed in a basket and carried to the appointed place, where the basket was to be offered with a prescribed formula, commemorative of the sojourn of Israel in Egypt and of his deliverance by the strong hand (Deut. xxvi. 2 et seq.). Fruit trees were given three years for growing, then the fruit of the fourth year was to be given to God (Lev. xix. 23-25). All these offerings were divided into two classes. The first, which were called bikkurim, comprised the various kinds of raw produce, of which, although the law seems to contemplate all fruits, seven sorts only were considered by the rabbis to fall under the obligation of first-fruit offering, viz., wheat, barley, grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives, and dates. He who lived near Jerusalem brought fresh fruits; others could bring them dried. It was customary for offerers to make their oblations in companies of 24 and with a singularly striking and effective ceremonial. The second class, the reshith, were brought of prepared materials, dough, wine, oil, etc. The terumoth were taxes consisting in the first ripe of the fruit, whether of the ground or of trees, levied for the support of the priests. There was no definite amount. Between one-fortieth and one-sixtieth of the harvest could be given, but it does not appear that this regulation was ever strictly carried out except by a small minority of pious devotees, just as various other provisions remained a dead letter. With the destruction of the second temple all offerings and sacrifices were abolished, though among orthodox Jews, as a reminiscence of the temple cult, a portion of the dough for baking bread is still thrown into the fire.

Offerings analogous to the Jewish first fruits became usual very early in the Christian Church, as is clear from passages in Irenæus (Adv. Hær. iv, 17 and 34); but the extent to which they prevailed, and the amount and general character of the oblation, are exceedingly uncertain. It appears to have been merged in the legal provision established by the emperors.

The medieval ecclesiastical impost known under the name of primitiæ, or first fruits, and sometimes of annates or annalia, was entirely different. By the word, in its medieval and modern sense, is meant a tax imposed by the popes on persons presented directly by the Pope to those benefices which by the canonical rules, or in virtue of privileges claimed by them, fall within the papal patronage. Persons so presented were required to contribute to the Roman see the first fruits (ie., the income of the first year) of their benefice. During the residence of the popes at Avignon, when the papal necessities compelled the use of every means for eking out a precarious revenue, it was sought to extend the impost to every benefice; and this claim was the subject of many contests, especially in Germany and in England, where the claim, so far as regarded direct papal presentation, had existed from the reign of King John. Henry VIII withdrew the right of the first fruits from the Pope in order to transfer it to the King; and he established a special court for the administration of first fruits, which, however, was soon abandoned. In the reign of Anne the revenues arising from this impost in England were vested in a board, to be applied for the purpose of supplementing the incomes of small benefices. In France this tax was abolished by the "pragmatic sanction" enacted at Bourges in 1438 and subsequently by the concordat of Leo X with Francis I in 1516. In Spain it ceased partially in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella and finally under Charles V. In Germany it formed one of the first among the centum gravamina presented to the Emperor in 1521, and the claim ceased altogether from that period. Consult the Hebrew Archæologies of Nowack (Freiburg, 1894) and Benzinger (2d ed., Tübingen, 1907), and Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites (London, 1894). See FIRST BORN.

FIRST GENTLEMAN OF EUROPE. A title given to the Prince Regent, afterward King George IV of England.

FIRST GRENADIER OF FRANCE. A title given to Latour d'Auvergne (q.v.).

FIRST LIEUTENANT OF A MAN-OF-WAR. See LIEUTENANT, FIRST, under head of LIEU

TENANT.

FIRTH, or FRITH (from Icel. fjörþr, ford; connected with Lat. portus, port, Skt. par, to cross). A name used in Scotland for deep inlets of the sea, in many cases of estuarine formation. The term "firth" is similar to the Norwegian "fiord," an inlet with high rocky walls; the Scottish firths often have the characteristics of fiords. See ESTUARY; FIORD.

FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING (1857 – ). An English historian, born in Sheffield. He studied at Clifton College and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he became a scholar in 1876 and an instructor in 1883. From 1887 to 1893 he was a lecturer at Pembroke College, Oxford; in 1900 he became Ford's lecturer in English history in the University of Oxford, in 1901 fellow of All Souls' and in 1904 of Oriel, and in the lastnamed year he was made regius professor of modern history. His special field was the Civil War and the Protectorate, and, besides contributions on this period to the Dictionary of National Biography, he wrote: Oliver Cromwell and the Rule of the Puritans (1900); Cromicell's Army (1902); The Last Years of the Protectorate (1909); The House of Lords during the Civil War (1910). He edited a number of historical

an illustrated edition of Macaulay's History of England.

FIRTH, MARK (1819-80). An English steel manufacturer and philanthropist, born at Sheffield. He left school at the age of 14 to enter the steelworks where his father was employed. In 1843 he and his father established a small foundry, which soon became very extensive and acquired a considerable trade in America. They built huge works at Sheffield in 1849. The firm manufactured steel blocks for ordnance, spherical and elongated shot, and every variety of heavy forgings for engineering requirements. The manufacturing and refining of steel from Swedish iron was successfully carried on, and nearly all the steel used in making English guns was produced by this firm. Firth was also celebrated as a public benefactor. His numerous gifts and endowments include the Mark Firth's Almshouses at Ranmoor, erected at a cost of £30,000, and consisting of 36 houses, left as a permanent legacy to the poor of Sheffield; freehold park of 36 acres for a recreation ground (opened by the Prince and Princess of Wales, Aug. 16, 1875), and the Firth College, erected at a cost of £20,000 and furnished with an annual endowment of £5000 (opened by Prince Leopold, Oct. 20, 1879).

FIRTH OF FORTH. See FORTH.

a

FIRUZ I, fe rooz. One of the Arsacide kings of Persia, who reigned 78-103. He is also called Arsaces XXIV, King of Parthia, and is identified with Pacorus II of the classical writers.

FIRUZ II (457-484), or PERŌZ. A king of Persia, of the Sassanide dynasty, son of Yazdegerd II. He overthrew and put to death his younger brother, Ormazd (or Homizd) III, and so came to the throne. The reign of Firuz was unhappy, though he succeeded in being at peace with the Romans. The Ephtalites, or White Huns (so called to distinguish them from the true Huns), threatened the kingdom. The Persians undertook two expeditions against them, but were unsuccessful in both, and in the second one Firuz and 29 of his sons perished.

FIRUZ III (?-679). The last of the Sassanides of Persia. He was expelled from Persia by the new Mohammedan power on the defeat of his father, Yazdegerd III, in the battle of Nehavend, about 641, and took refuge with the Emperor of China, Kao-Tsung, who vainly endeavored to restore him to the Persian throne. VOL. VIII.-40

these, three square rooms, side by side, each having a vaulted dome, and behind these an open court surrounded by vaulted chambers. The massive walls were constructed of rough stone, the vaulting was of brick, and plaster was used to finish off the surfaces. The general style of architecture shows traces of Mesopotamian, Byzantine, and Roman influences, the particular features being copies of decorations in Persian palaces, the use of blind arches, and a zigzag molding of projecting bricks.

FIRUZABADI, fe'roo-za-bä'dê, MEDJED EDDIN (1329-1414). A Mohammedan lexicographer, born at Karazin, near Shiraz. Several educational institutions at Medina and Mecca were founded by him. Three years after his meeting with Timur at Shiraz (1382) he was appointed chief cadi of Yemen, which position he retained until his death. He achieved celebrity through his great lexicographical work Qamus ("The Ocean"; best ed. by Nasr al-Hurini, 4 vols., 1301-02 of the Hegira). The work has also been translated into Turkish (3 vols., 1230-40 A.H.) and Persian (Calcutta, 1840 A.D.).

FIRUZ SHAH I, RUKN UD-DIN. A Mohammedan king of Delhi. He succeeded his father, Shams ud-Din Altamsh, in 1236 A.D., after having been governor of Lahore. He was deposed after a reign of seven months and was succeeded by his sister, the Sultana Razziya, or Raziyatud-Din ('Devoted to the Faith'). Consult LanePoole, Mediaval India under Mohammedan Rule (New York, 1903).

FIRUZ SHAH II, JALAL AD-DIN (?-1296). The founder of the Khalji dynasty of the Mohammedan sultans of Delhi, a magnanimous ruler, who succeeded to the throne in 1290 at the age of 70. His rare clemency and humility were exasperating to his followers, who desired a fighter and not a lover of art and learning as he proved to be. He freely forgave Chhaju, a nephew of Balban, and his rebel followers, after they had attempted to overthrow him, and even went so far as to refuse to execute the members of a society of assassins, whom he merely banished to Bengal. That he was brave in battle is obvious from his campaign against the Mongols on the Indus in 1292. In 1296 he was drawn unarmed into a trap and basely assassinated by his nephew, Ala-ad-Din, who two months later succeeded to the throne. Consult Lane-Poole, Medieval India under Mohammedan Rule (London, 1903).

FIRUZ SHAH III (1296-1388). King of Delhi. He succeeded Mohammad II ibn Taghlak III in 1351. A most merciful and pious ruler, his reign was tranquil and his country prosperous. In 1386 he abdicated, and two years later he died.

FISC (Fr. fisc, from Lat. fiscus, treasure chest). The public treasury. The Latin term was originally applied to the private purse of the Emperor, to distinguish it from the public treasury, or ærarium. Later it came to designate the Imperial treasury, in contradistinction to the private property of the ruler, in which sense it is employed in modern countries whose jurisprudence is derived from the civil law. The fisc has, in Roman fashion, been personified and is in law considered as an ideal or juristic person. It has a legal right to all the state revenues, including those derivable from forfeitures. In suits against it by a subject, all questions of doubt are to be resolved in favor of the subject. Consult: Bracton, De Legibus et Consuetudini bus Anglia (Twiss ed., London, 1878-83); Spelman, Glossarium Archaiologicum (ib., 1867); Molina v. United States (6 Court of Claims Reports, 209, 1870); Sohm, Institutes of Roman Law (2d ed., Oxford, 1901).

FISCANNUM. See FÉCAMP.

FISCHART, fish'ärt, JOHANNES (c.1545c.91). The great German satirist of his century, also a Protestant reformer. A doctor of the University of Basel (1574), his literary activity was confined chiefly to the years 1575-81, after which he became absorbed in his duties as advocate at the Imperial court at Speyer, and as local magistrate (1583) at Forbach, where he died. Some 50 of the satires attributed to him are authentic. They are directed against the Pope, the Jesuits, vicious priests, the aristocracy, pedants, astrologers, and folly of every kind. His most famous works are the Rabelaisian Aller Praktik Grossmutter (1572); Eulenspiegel Reimensweiss (1571); Affenteur liche und ungeheuerliche Geschichtschrift . von Gargantua und Pantagruel (1575); the coarsely comic parody of the animal epic, Flöhhatz, Weibertratz (1574); the anticlerical Bienenkorb des heiligen römischen Imenschwarms (1579, suggested by the Bynencorf of the Dutch Marnix); Der heilige Brotkorb (1580), an imitation of Calvin's Traité des reliques; Das vier hörnige Jesuiterhütlein (1580); the genially comic Das glückhafft Schiff von Zurich (1576; ed. by Baechtold, 1880). His poems were edited by Kurtz (Leipzig, 1866-68). Consult studies of Fischart by Wackernagel (Basel, 1875), Wendeler (Halle, 1879), and Besson (Paris, 1889).

...

FISCHBACH, fish'bäG, FRIEDRICH (18391908). A German textile designer, born at Aix-la-Chapelle. He was educated at the Academy of Industrial Design in Berlin and in 1862 went to Vienna, where he worked as decorator and designer. In 1870 he was appointed teacher of ornamentation at the Royal Academy in Hanau. He was director of the newly organized Industrial Art School at Saint-Gall from 1883 to 1888, and in 1889 settled in Wiesbaden, Germany. Several societies for the advancement of industrial art were established by him, and he was influential in the development of textile design in Germany. His collection of antique fabrics and embroideries was acquired by the Metropolitan Museum, New York, in 1909. His principal literary works include: Ornamente der Gewebe (with 160 colored plates, 1874-81);

Geschichte der Textilkunst (1883); Südslavische Ornamente (2d ed., 1872); Album für Stickerei (130 patterns, printed in gold and colors; later eds., 1872 and 1880); Neue Muster für Stickerei und Häkelarbeiten (3 series, 1880-83); Stickereimuster (4 parts, 1888); Häkelvorlagen (1889); Weissstickereivorlagen (1892); Die wichtigsten Webemuster bis zum 19ten Jahrhundert (1900).

FISCHER, fish'èr, ABRAHAM (1850-1913). A South African public official, born at Green Point, Cape Town, and educated at the South African College. Participating in the politics of Orange Free State, he became a member of its Volksraad in 1878 and of its Executive Council in 1896, and also served in various colonial and interstate conferences. During the South African War he was president of the joint deputation of the Transvaal and Orange Free State to Europe and America. He served as chairman of the Orangia Unie; held the premiership of the Orange River Colony from 1907 to 1910; and after the Union of South Africa was formed he became Minister of Lands in 1910, Privy Coun cilor in 1911, and Minister of the Interior and Lands in 1912. ).

FISCHER, fish'er, BERNHARD (1852A German bacteriologist, born in Coburg and educated at Berlin. He became M.D. in 1875, accompanied the German Cholera Commission to Egypt and India, in 1889 was a member of the German Plankton Expedition, and in 1887 became docent and in 1899 professor in the University of Kiel, where he was also director of the Institute of Hygiene. He made important bacteriological studies of sea water and sea air; also an original and valuable classification of bacteria, based on morphological characters, particularly number and distribution of cilia; and his Structure and Functions of Bacteria (2d ed., 1900) is a standard work.

FISCHER, EMIL (1838-1914). A famous German dramatic basso, born in Brunswick. He made his début in 1857 in Graz in Boieldieu's Jean de Paris. After that he filled various engagements in Pressburg, Stettin, and Brunswick. From 1863-70 he was director of the opera at Danzig. From 1875-80 he sang in Rotterdam, and from 1880-85 in Dresden. The period from 1885 to 1891 at the Metropolitan Opera House, New York, marks the culmination of his artistic triumphs. Here he not only created the bass rôles in Wagner's later music dramas, as far as America is concerned, but also firmly estab lished his reputation as a Wagner interpreter surpassed by none and equaled by very few. Especially his Hans Sachs is still regarded as an ideal not reached by any other artist. From 1895 to 1897 he was a member of Mr. Damrosch's German company, and he appeared once more, and for the last time, at the Metropolitan Opera House in 1904. He died in Hamburg.

FISCHER, EMIL (1852-1919). A celebrated German chemist, born at Euskirchen. He studied at Strassburg and in 1879 was made professor extraordinary at the University of Munich. Three years later he was appointed full profes sor of chemistry at Erlangen and in 1885 was invited to take a similar position at Würzburg. When, on the death of the celebrated A. W. Hofmann, the chair of organic chemistry at the University of Berlin became vacant, Fischer was appointed to fill the vacancy (1892). His most important achievement was the synthetic production of the simple sugars and the complete demonstration of their chemical constitution.

Although he did not succeed in synthesizing ordinary cane sugar and the more complex carbohydrates (such as cellulose and starch), his researches have thrown much light on their chemical constitution and have thus paved the way for future success. Of very great importance, further, were his researches on the constitution of substances of the "purine group" (including the well-known alkaloids caffeine and theobromine), the polypeptides (artificial proteid-like substances), and the depsides (tanninlike substances). His epoch-making researches, which have created several new chapters in the science of organic chemistry, were crowned with the Nobel prize in 1902. His Anleitung zur Darstellung organischer Präparate (5th ed., 1896; Eng. trans. by Stanford, 1909) is well known to every student of organic chemistry. His papers have also been published in collected form. His publications include further Die Chemie der Kohlenhydrate und ihre Bedeutung für die Physiologie (1894) and Chemical Research in its Bearings on National Welfare (1912). See CARBOHYDRATES; POLYEPTIDES;

STEREOCHEMISTRY.

FISCHER, GUSTAV ADOLF (1848-86). A German explorer, born at Barmen. In 1876 he accompanied the Denhardt East African exploring expedition to Zanzibar, where he settled as a physician, and in the following year explored Wito and the southern Galla country. In 1878 he continued his journey to Wapokomoland and along the Tana River to Massa. With the support of the Geographical Society of Hamburg he visited the Massai country in 1882 and penetrated from the mouth of the Pagani to Lake Naivasha. The hostile attitude of the natives prevented him from advancing farther. Equipped with funds by the brother of Junker, explorer, who with Emin Pasha and Casati had been lost in the equatorial provinces, he organized a relief expedition, which, however, was compelled to return after reaching Lake Victoria Nyanza. Shortly after his arrival in Germany in 1886, he died of a bilious fever contracted during this journey. He wrote: Mehr Licht im dunkeln Weltteil (1885), Das MasaiLand (1885), as well as articles in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie and in the Verhandlungen of the Hamburg Geographical Society.

an

A

FISCHER, JEAN CHRÉTIEN (c.1716-62). German soldier in the French service, born in Stuttgart and educated at Giessen. He entered the French army about 1737 and fought in the War of the Austrian Succession. In 1743 he was authorized by the Marshal de Belle-Isle to raise a company, which was called Fischer's chasseurs, the origin of that branch in the French army. He was a prisoner from 1746 to 1748. He served in India and distinguished himself in the Seven Years' War, was made brigadier for his bravery at Arloff (1759), added to his fame at Clostercamp (1760), resigned his command to the Marquis de Conflans (1760), but still fought in his old troop with the rank of a lieutenant colonel. He was killed in a duel with a French officer who challenged him after the French defeat at Wilhelmsthal (June 24, 1762).

FISCHER, JOHANN GEORG (1816-97). A German poet, born at Gross-Süssen, Württemberg. He taught at Langenau, Ulm, and Stuttgart, and in 1860 was appointed professor at the scientific high school in the latter city. As a poet, Fischer may be regarded as the last note

worthy representative of the traditional Suabian school. He was not in sympathy with modern naturalism and was influenced by Schiller, Goethe, Hölderlin, and especially Mörike. He was in the fullest sense a poet of Nature, whose every mood he portrays in his verses. Scarcely less meritorious are his love poems, of which he composed a great number, and which also are animated by an enthusiastic personification and idealization of Nature. Fischer has been called by his admirers "Der schwäbische Frauenlob." Among his principal productions are the following: Gedichte (3₫ ed., 1883); Aus frischer Luft (2d ed., 1873); Neue Gedichte (1891); Saul, a drama (1862); Friedrich der Zweite von Hohenstaufen, a drama (1863); Florian Geyer, der Volksheld im deutschen Bauernkrieg (1866); Kaiser Maximilian von Mexiko, a drama (1868).

in

FISCHER, JOSEF (1858- ). A German historian and geographer, born in Quadrath, near Cologne. He studied at Münster, Munich, Vienna, and Innsbruck; in 1881 became a Jesuit; then studied at Ditton, in England, and, taking up history and geography, in Vienna and Innsbruck; and in 1895 began teaching geography at the Jesuit "Stella Matutina" in Feldkirch. In 1893-98 he wrote several volumes on Austrian history, but his more important, later work was on the early cartography and exploration of America. The titles of his principal works are: Die Entdeckungen der Normannen Amerika (1902; Eng. trans. by Soulsby, Discoveries of the Norsemen in America, 1903); Die älteste Karte mit dem Namen Amerika (1903); Waldseemüller's Cosmographie Introductio (1907, with Von Wieser), including an English version of Vespucci's Voyages; Die Weltkarte des Jodocus Hondius (1907, with Luther Stevenson); Der deutsche Ptolemäus (1910); Claud Clavus, the First Cartographer of America (1911); Die handschriftliche Ueberlieferung der Ptolemäuskarten (1912); An Important Ptolemy Manuscript (1913).

FISCHER, KUNO (1824-1907). A noted German philosopher and literary critic. He was born at Sandewalde, Silesia, studied at the universities of Leipzig and Halle, in 1850 became an instructor in philosophy at Heidelberg, and when his lectureship had been withdrawn in 1853 by direction of the Baden ministry, continued researches at Heidelberg and was in 1856 appointed a lecturer at Berlin. He had, however, a short time previously accepted an honorary professorship at Jena and continued to occupy it until 1872, when he was called to the chair of philosophy (to succeed Zeller) and modern German literature at Heidelberg. He achieved high distinction as academic lecturer, orator, and author. His philosophical viewpoint is, with some modifications, Hegelian. His chief work is the Geschichte der neuern Philosophie (jubilee edition in 10 vols., 1897-1903), at once the most extensive and the most distinguished exposition of the subject. In 1860 his Kants Leben und die Grundlagen seiner Lehre lent the first real impulse to the so-called "return to Kant." His controversy with Trendelenburg is noteworthy. Important among his further publications are: Schiller-Schriften (2d ed., 189192); Lessings Nathan der Weise (1896); Baruch Spinozas Leben und Charakter (1865); GoetheSchriften (8 vols., 1895-1900); Shakespeare's Hamlet (1896); and several "Festreden," such as Goethe in Heidelberg (1899).

FISCHER, LUDWIG HANS (1848- ). An

Austrian landscape painter and etcher, born at Salzburg. A pupil, at the Vienna Academy, of Lichtenfels in painting, of Jacoby in engraving, and of Unger in etching, he completed his studies by travels in Italy, Spain, north Africa, Egypt, and India, and afterward settled in Vienna. Three of his oil paintings, including a "View of Jerusalem," are in the Vienna Museum, and nine decorative landscapes are in the Museum of Natural History there. Among a series of etchings and engravings the cycle "Historical Landscapes from Austria-Hungary" is his most remarkable production. He also painted many excellent water colors and published Die Technik der Aquarellmalerei (8th ed., 1901), and wrote numerous magazine articles accompanied by clearly defined and spirited drawings.

FISCHER, fê'sha', PAUL HENRI (1835-93). A French paleontologist and naturalist, born in Paris. Having obtained his doctorate in sciences and in medicine, he was appointed assistant in paleontology at the Museum of Natural History. In 1872 he became assistant naturalist at the same institution. He was at different times president of the Société Géologique de France and the Société Zoologique de France and in 1880 was a member of the commission for submarine dredging. From 1856 he edited, with Bernardi, the Journal de conchyliologie. His publications include: Fauna conchyliologique marine de la Gironde et du sud-ouest de la France (1865; enlarged by a Supplément in 1875); Recherches sur les Actinies des côtes océaniques de France (1876); a Manuel de conchyliologie (1885); Paléontologie de l'ile de Rhodes (1887).

FISCHER, fish'er, THEOBALD (1846-1910). A German geographer, born Oct. 31, 1846, at Kirchsteitz, near Leitz, in Thuringia, and educated at Heidelberg, Halle, Bonn, and Vienna. In 1871 he went to Brussels as a private tutor and eventually to Paris. He was professor of geography at Kiel from 1879 to 1883, when he took the same chair at Marburg, holding it until his death. He was a specialist on Mediterranean geography. In 1886 he visited the Tunisian Sahara and in 1888 made a tour through Morocco and Algeria. In addition to numerous contributions to scientific periodicals his publications include: Raccolta dei mappemondi e carte nautiche del XIII al XVI secolo (10 atlases, containing 79 leaves, 1881); Beiträge zur Geschichte der Erdkunde und der Kartographie in Italien im Mittelalter (1886); "Die südeuropäischen Halbinseln," in Kirchhoff's Allgemeine Länderkunde, is considered his masterpiece. The section dealing with Italy was translated under the title of La Penisola Italiana.

FISCHER VON ERLACH, fish'er fôn ĕr'1G, JOHANN BERNHARD (1650-1723). An Austrian architect, born in Vienna. Returning to Vienna after a period of study in Rome, he was employed on the most important buildings of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries in that city. Among the most notable of his works, all of which were designed in the extremest phase of the Baroque (q.v.) style, were the palace of Schönbrunn, the Hofbibliothek (Royal Library), the palace of Prince Eugène, and the church of San Carlo Borromeo; besides works in Breslau and Prague. His son, Joseph Emanuel, completed the library and church above

mentioned after his death.

FISCHER VON WALDHEIM, vält him, GOTTHELF (1771-1853). A Russian physician

and naturalist, born at Waldheim, Saxony. After holding a professorship at Mainz, he accepted a call to Moscow (1803), where he be came professor of natural history and director of the university museum devoted to that branch of science. In 1808 he founded the Society of Naturalists at Moscow. He published numerous works on comparative anatomy, on the nutrition of plants, and on galvanism." One of the most important of these is the Bibliographia Palæontologica Animalium Systematica (2d ed., 1834). FISCUS. See ÆRARIUM.

FISET, fè'ze', LOUIS JOSEPH CYPRIEN (1825). A Canadian poet. He was born Quebec, was educated privately and at Quebec Seminary, and was called to the bar in 1848. He was soon afterward appointed a prothonotary of the Superior Court of the Province of Quebec, an office which he held for many years. In 1860, when the Prince of Wales (afterward Edward VII) arrived at Quebec, the ode of welcome to him was written by Fiset. In 1867 his poem on the discovery of America won a prize in a poetical competition at Laval University. He was a frequent contributor to La Ruche Littéraire (Montreal), to Les Soirées Canada, and to La littéraire Canadienne (Quebec). He was one of the founders of L'Institut Canadien (Quebec), and afterward became its president. He retired on a pension in 1898. He published Jude et Grazia, ou les malheurs de l'émigration canadienne (1861).

).

FISET, MARIE JOSEPH EUGENE (1874A Canadian soldier. He was born at Rimouski, Province of Quebec, and was educated at Rimouski College and at Laval University, where he graduated in medicine in 1896. He had entered the volunteer militia service as a lieutenant in 1890, was promoted major in 1898, and was brevetted lieutenant colonel in 1901 for his services in the South African War; in 1900 he had been at Paardeberg, Poplar Grove, Driefontein, Hout Nek, and Zand River; also in Orange River Colony and eastern and western Transvaal. In 1903 he was promoted lieutenant colonel, army medical service, and also staff adjutant of medical services; in 1903-06 he was director of general medical services; and he was then appointed Deputy Minister of Militia and Defense. He received the Queen's medal with four clasps, and the decoration of the Distinguished Service Order.

FISH (AS. fisc, Ger. Fisch; connected with Lat. piscis, OIr. iasc, fish). A backboned animal which lives in water, breathes by means of gills, and possesses paired fins. Such animals constitute the class Pisces, but popularly the term "fish" includes, in addition to the above, certain other lower vertebrates, the lancelets (Leptocardii) and the round-mouths (Cyclostomata). not to mention the ignorant error of speaking of whales, etc., as "fish."

The

Form. It is almost impossible to describe the form of a fish in terms that would include all the different varieties, notwithstanding the fact that the group as a whole presents a greater uniformity of form than other vertebrate groups, e.g., birds The majority, however, have a more or less elongated body, tapering at both ends. variations in form can usually be correlated with the habits of the fish. The great variety of habitats into which the fish have been crowded, and to which they have become adapted, has re sulted in great diversity of form, though this diversity is mostly concerned with detail, leav