sepals, petals, and stamens seem to arise, such a flower being called "epigynous," or said to have an "inferior ovary."

Regularity and Irregularity. In the more primitive flowers the different members of a set are similar and are repeated uniformly about a common centre. Such a flower is said to be "actinomorphic," or "radiate," or more simply a "regular flower." In many cases, however, the members of a single set are not all alike, and this is particularly noticeable in the corolla. The unequal development of the members of a single set is called zygomorphism, or more commonly "irregularity."

The arrangement of the parts of the flower in the bud is known as "æstivation." See BUD. etc. FLOWER, BENJAMIN ORANGE (1858-1918). An American author and editor, born in Ilion, Ill., and educated at Kentucky University. After some newspaper experience he settled in Boston and established the Arena. This magazine he edited until 1896 and from 1904 to 1909, in the interim having had charge of the Coming Age, which was eventually merged with the Arena. From 1909 to 1911 he was editor of the Twentieth Century Magazine. His publications include: Civilization's Inferno (1893); The New Time (1894); Gerald Massey, Poet, Prophet, and Mystic (1895); Whittier, Prophet, Seer, and Man (1895); The Century of Sir Thomas More (1896); Persons, Places, and Ideas (1896); How England Averted a Revolu tion of Force (1901; new ed., 1911); Christian Science as a Religious Belief (1909).

FLOWER, ROSWELL PETTIBONE (1835-99). An American capitalist and Democratic politician, born at Theresa, Jefferson Co., N. Y., where he worked on a farm and in a mill. He was clerk in a hardware store, assistant postmaster, and then a jeweler at Watertown. Going to New York in 1869 he made the banking house of Flower & Co. a recognized power in Wall Street and became director in various corporations. He was a member of Congress in 1881-83 and in 1889-91; was mentioned as a candidate for the Democratic nomination for the presidency in 1888; and was Governor of New York in 1892-94. In 1896 he was a Gold Democrat. His benevolences included Flower Hospital and St. Thomas's Home in New York City. A statue of Governor Flower by Saint-Gaudens was unveiled at Watertown, Sept. 1, 1902.

FLOWER, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1831-99). An English biologist and anatomist, born at Stratford on Avon, Warwickshire. He grad uated in medicine at the University of London in 1851 and was an assistant surgeon in the medical service during the Crimean War. In 1861 he was appointed curator of the Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, where he also became professor of comparative anatomy and physiology in 1870. From 1884 to 1898 he was director of the British Museum of Natural History. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1864 and from 1879 until his death was president of the Zoological Society of London. He was also president of the Anthropological Institute from 1883 to 1885, and at various times president of the anthropological section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. His principal investigations have to do with the Monotremata and the marsupials, and his researches concerning the structure of the brain of lemurs

and apes are also important. He was the first to show that marsupials retain throughout their life history a permanent dentition, with the exception of one tooth, and that thus marsupials are differentiated from the other mammals. His publications, in addition to numerous memoirs, include: Diagrams of the Nerves of the Human Body (1861); An Introduction to the Osteology of the Mammalia (1870; 3d ed., revised, 1885); The Horse (1890); Essays on Museums and Other Subjects (1898).

FLOWER AND THE LEAF, THE. A poem published in the 1598 edition of Chaucer's works, but not now believed to be his.

FLOWER BEETLE. Any of many small beetles seen almost exclusively on flowers, feeding on pollen. The most common flower beetle in the northern United States is a yellowishbrown, black-spotted species (Euphoria inda), which feeds not only on the pollen of all sorts of flowers, but on the stalk and ears of young Indian corn and on various fruits and may become a serious pest. It flies in early spring close to the ground, with a humming sound very much like that of a bumblebee, and a second brood appears in September.

FLOWER BUG. One of a family (Anthocorida) of small bugs, distinguished from bedbugs by their long oval forms and by having wing covers and ocelli. Not many species are known, but individuals are extremely numerous, haunting flowers, where they hunt out and devour plant lice, lace bugs, and similar minute pests of horticulture. The commonest species is Triphleps insidiosus, which, like some of the others, is shining, black and white.

FLOWER DANCE. There were two distinctively floral dances in Greece-the anthema, which was danced by women at private gatherings, and the May dance, in which the most beautiful young girls decorated themselves with flowers and danced singing in honor of the goddess of the May. The song which was sung while dancing the anthema was as follows:

"Where's my lovely parsley, say?

My violets, roses, where are they?

My parsley, roses, violets fair,

Where are my flowers? Tell me where."

A poem

FLOWER OF COURTESY, THE. attributed to Chaucer by Thynne. The preponderance of evidence, however, points to John Lydgate as the author.

FLOWER PECKERS. A book name for a rather indefinite group of small, brightly colored East Indian birds, sometimes called honey peckers, of which the Australian Dicæum is regarded as a type. They have many characteristics of the creepers, but are provisionally set apart into a family Dicæida.

FLOWERPOTS. Receptacles of unglazed earthenware, tapering a little towards the bottom, which is perforated with one or more holes. (See POTTERY.) Those of smallest size are only about two inches deep and are used chiefly for seedlings to be soon again transplanted. For plants which require a pot of more than 12 inches deep and 18 inches wide, wooden boxes or tubs are generally provided, although earthen pots of much larger size are sometimes made. The flowerpot is usually placed in a saucer of the same material, but when plants growing in flowerpots are placed out of doors the saucer is often dispensed with. For ornamental use

flowerpots are sometimes glazed, or made in the shape of vases. In filling flowerpots small stones or bits of broken pottery are placed in the bottom, to prevent water from lodging there and souring the soil in which the plant is to grow.

FLOWERS. A term applied by the older chemists to any light pulverulent substance obtained by sublimation, as flowers of antimony, flowers of arsenic, flowers of benzoin, flowers of sulphur, flowers of zinc, etc.

FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL. Copies of natural flowers made of a great variety of materials and used for both scientific and decorative purposes. To the former class belong the collection of flowers in the possession of Harvard University, which are made wholly of glass and illustrate the flora of the United States. Flowers and leaves of painted linen, and of horn shavings stained in various colors, were made by the ancient Egyptians, and it is said that Crassus of Rome made such artificial flowers of gold. The Chinese form beautiful flowers out of rice paper and from the pith of a kind of bamboo, while the Japanese show wonderful dexterity in reproducing the forms and colors of natural flowers. The natives of the Bahama Islands and other savages arrange small and daintily tinted shells into sprays of flowers. Feathers have long been made into beautiful flowers by the South American Indians. In Italy the cocoons of silkworms are dyed and used extensively for this purpose. Fine imitations of flowers are made from paper, especially crape paper, ribbon, velvet, and the thin lamina of whalebone. Wax-flower making is a distinct branch of the art. At one time the making of wreaths of flowers out of locks of hair, the gifts of friends, cleverly woven with wire, was a favorite form of fancy work among ladies. The Italians were the first to bring the art of makin artificial flowers to a high state of perfection. At present the chief centres for the manufacture of flowers for the decoration of ladies' bonnets and dresses, for head wreaths and for table and house decoration, are in France and America. French immigrants probably introduced the industry into America. As early as 1840 there were 10 establishments for making artificial flowers in New York City. The United States census of 1849 reported 23 establishments making artificial flowers, with 434 wage earners and a product valued at $146,120. By 1909, according to the thirteenth United States census, the number of establishments had increased to 225, giving employment to an average number of 4835 wage earners, with an annual output valued at $9,041,447.

The materials of which the artificial flowers commonly in use are made are silks, cambric, jaconet, and fine calico, besides muslin, crape, and gauze for particular flowers, and satin and velvet for thick petals. The tinting of petals of the best flowers requires some amount of delicacy and skill. In nature the tint of each petal of a flower is rarely uniform; and the best artificial flowers represent the natural variations with great accuracy. The petals of a rose, e.g., are dyed by bolding each separately by pincers, and then dipping it in a bath of carmine, and afterward into pure water, to give delicacy of tint; but as the color is usually deepest in the centre, a little more dye is added there while the petal is still moist, and this diffuses itself outward in diminishing intensity.

The whiteness at the insertion of the petal is produced by touching that part with pure water after the rest is dyed. The artificial flowers of trade, however, are colored by no such delicate means. The material of which they are made is simply dyed in uniform color, in sheets, and any variation in tint is effected by a few daubs of the paint brush after the petals are cut out. The aniline dyeing solutions are heated by steam in great copper kettles, into which the material is dipped. The material is then passed through a wringer and stretched upon frames to dry. The next step is to size the material by apply ing a solution of dextrin and starch evenly to the surface while the cloth is still stretched upon the drying frames. The material is now ready to be cut into the leaves or petals of flowers. This is effected by sharp steel cutters, made of the desirable size and shape. A large stock of these irons is necessary, as special forms and sizes are required for each flower. Ten or 12 sheets of the material of the same color are carefully and smoothly laid in a pile on a leaden block, and the cutter, with a wooden mallet, drives the sharp steel stamp through the pile and repeats the process till the sheets are riddled with holes. The leaves and petals are now passed on to another workman, who presses the veins into them by means of a pair of dies. (See DIES AND DIE SINKING.) A petal is placed in the lower die and the upper die fitted over it. The dies are placed under a press, and a turn of the wheel presses the vein lines into the stiff material.

The next process in shaping is that of "goffering," or "gauffing," by means of which the hollow form is given to petals. For hollowing petals the goffering iron is simply a polished iron ball, mounted on an iron wire in a handle. It is heated and waxed, the petal is placed on a cushion, and the iron pressed against it. A variety of other forms of goffering irons are used, such as prismatic rods and bent wires.

The stamens are made of coarse yellow thread on which corn meal is gummed. The centres of daisies are usually of wool and cotton dyed yel low. Flowers are put together wholly by hand and are built up from the centre; the pistils and stamens are tied in a bunch to a piece of wire; the petals are arranged in order and pasted; then the sepals of the calyx are pasted outside of these and further secured by winding fine thread or silk round the lower parts. Other wires are inclosed with this thread and form the stalk, which is bound round with green tissue paper; and at proper intervals the leaves are inserted by means of fine wires, to which they are bound, the ends of these wires being bound in and incorporated with the stalk and concealed by the green paper, or a green rubber tubing may be used for the stems. Buds are made of taffeta, tinted and stiffened, and stuffed with cotton. When a variation of tint is desired on a petal, it is colored with a brush. The petals are taken directly from the cutter to the artist, who performs his work with great deftness and rapidity. Twenty or 30 petals are spread out on a tray, and the artist touches up one after another with the paint prepared for the purpose.

Besides the flowers copied from nature there is a considerable demand for what are called "fancy flowers," most of which are invented by the manufacturer to use up waste and spoiled fragments originally designed for better pur

poses. Flowers suitable for mourning are prepared by coating leaves, flowers, etc., with strong gum and then dusting upon them powdered galena. This substance, a sulphuret of lead, is formed naturally in lustrous cubic crys tals of a dark-gray color, and however finely it is powdered, the fragments still tend to retain the same shape and surface and thus present a number of flat glittering facets. Consult M. Van Kleeck, Artificial Flower Makers (New York, 1913).

FLOWERS, LANGUAGE OF, or FLORIGRAPHY. The language of flowers is supposed to have been used among the earliest nations; but the Greeks are the first users of whom we have any trustworthy records. They carried it to a very high degree, using flowers as types of everything interesting, public as well as private. The Romans also had a well-developed flower language, and its study was revived during the Middle Ages, when chivalry became preeminent; and it received great development at the hands of the Roman church. Flowers have had an important part in all mythologies. Oak was the patriot's crown, bay the poet's, and the myrtle the crown for beauty. The olive was the token of peace, as the ivy was the emblem of Bacchus. The significance of many flowers is derived from their properties. The amaranth has been selected to typify immortality because of its duration. The rose, by universal suffrage made the queen of the flowers, has a symbolism varying with its color: a single red rose signifies "I love you"; the small white bridal rose typifies happy love; and the moss-rose bud a confession of love. The following are some wellknown flowers, with their symbolism as used in poetry:

Consult S. J. B. Hale, Flora's Interpreter (4th ed., Boston, 1835), and Charles Welsh, The Language, Sentiment, and Poetry of Flowers (New York, 1912).

FLOWERS, NATIONAL AND SYMBOLICAL. The use of flowers as symbols began in very early times and has continued to the present day among nearly all nations. Biblical literature contains many allusions to floral symbols, and China once possessed a complete floral alphabet, At the present day the Chinese make a lavish use of flowers in many of their public and religious ceremonies, on occasions of marriage, death, and burial, as well as in the decoration of the temples of their deities, the graves of their dead, and their private dwellings.

The monuments of Egypt and Assyria also have upon their surfaces a code of floral calligraphy whose meaning can now be but dimly guessed. Here the sacred lily, or lotus, of Egypt plays a prominent part. It was consecrated to the gods and became in time the national emblem. The Egyptian deity Osiris (q.v.) is portrayed with his head crowned with this blossom; it is painted on the walls and carved on the doors of the temples. See LOTUS.

India had in her magnificent flora a wonderful field for poetical genius. In India the lotus was, as it is now, the sacred flower. In its bosom Brahma was believed to have been born; and it is to the Hindus the chariot of their Cupid, whom they picture as first seen pinioned with flowers and floating down the sacred Ganges upon it. The lotus became, through its association with religious rites, an emblem of mystery and was hence frequently used for architectural adornment. Among the Hindus distinguished strangers are welcomed with garlands of flowers as tokens of hospitality, and the shrines of the favorite deities of the Hindus are decorated with these emblems.

In Persia a yearly festival is held called the "feast of roses," which lasts as long as the roses bloom. The literatures and the languages of the Hindu, Turkish, Persian, Arabic, and Malay races abound in floral symbols. In Japan the lotus is a symbol of purity. The Japanese picture their deity reclining upon the leaf of a water lily or lotus and often name their children after beautiful flowers. The chrysanthemum, or "golden flower," is the national emblem, and the country is popularly called the "Land of Chrysanthemums," and a day is yearly set apart in that country, in November, for the "festival of chrysanthemums." (See JAPAN, Flora.) From early days there have been two royal crests in Japan: one is the paulownia tree, which is seen only on the seals of the Emperor's family; the other, the chrysanthemum, which is used for all governmental symbols outside the palace. The flower is embroidered on their flags and banners and printed on important papers. It is stamped on their silks and has decorated their finest porcelain for hundreds of years. Cherry blossoms, too, figure largely among the Japanese. See RISING SUN, ORDER

OF THE.

European florigraphy had its rise in Greece and many of the old floral customs still linger in the Grecian islands. The Greeks seem not only to have entertained the most passionate love for flowers, but to have adopted them as typical of every interesting occurrence, public or private. Wooers decorated the doorways of their beloved ones with garlands of flowers; the illness of the inmates was indicated by buckthorn and laurel hung across the lintels; while at death parsley was sprinkled over the remains, and the head was crowned with various symbolical flowers. At the public games of Greece the victor was invariably rewarded with some floral emblem. The Olympian winner received a gar land of wild olive (see OLIVE); the Pythian victor received a laurel crown. In the Nemean games a crown of parsley was awarded; in the Elean, a crown of pine leaves. The youths crowned themselves with flowers in the fêtes, the priests in religious ceremonies, and the guests in convivial meetings. Garlands of flowers were suspended from the gates of the city in times of rejoicing. The conventional epithet of Athens was "the city of the violet crown," the violet being chosen as the national emblem. Consult: Gulick, The Life of the Ancient Greeks (New York, 1902); Ogle, "Laurel in Ancient Religion and Folk-Lore," in American Journal of Philology, vol. xxxi, pp. 287-311 (New York, 1910); "The House-Door in Greek and Roman Religion and Folk-Lore," ib., vol. xxxii, pp. 251271. See ADONIS; FLOWER DANCE.

The highest honor that a Roman soldier could